August 13, 2007

Glossary [classical vade-mecum]

A: (or alpha) the first letter of the Greek alphabet, the Greek letter α.

A.D.: year of our Lord, in Latin anno domini, meaning the year after Christ [contrast: B.C. or before Christ].

A.E.: Actian Era. This refers to the year of the great Roman victory at Actium: January 1^st, 30 BC.

A.U.C.: (or Ab Urbe Condĭtā) this means in the year from the foundation of Rome; alternatively: Annõ Urbis Condĭtae, meaning in the year after the foundation of Rome. In this count the year A.U.C 1207 equals to 454 BC, or to year of Rome 753 which in fact places the foundation by Romulus about 100 years later.

Abacus: a rectangular slab which continues the upper element on the top of a capital of a column of the Dorian, Ionian or Corinthian order. It is nearly always carved from the same block as the rest of the captal.

Abantian: name for the Greek island of Euboea, derived from the name of its ancient tribes: the abantes.

Abai: small city in Phokis (modern --), an ancient district in central Greece north of the Gulf of Corinth. The district housed the oracle of Apollo at Delphi –oracle temple, and at Abae –oracular shrine).

Abarbare: a water nymph; the consort of Boukolion, and mother of the twins Pedasos and Aisepos who were both killed while defending the city of Troy [Iliad, book 6, line 22].

Abas I: grand-father of the Argonaut Kanthos; father of Kanethos. He came from the island of Euboea [Argonautika, book 1, line 77].

Abas II: stepfather of the Argonaut Idmon (Idmon’s true father was Apollo though, from whom he had the gift of prophecy) [Argonautika, book 1, line 142; book 2, lines 815, 823 (?) and 857].

Abas III: brother of Polyidos. Both brothers were the sons of the dream interpreter, Old Eurydamas. Both were killed by Diomedes during the siege of Troy [Iliad, book 5, line 149].

Abdera: an ancient Greek city on the coast of Thrace, east of the River Nestos, established by Ionian settlers from Asia Minor in the 7^th century BC. Also the birthplace of the philosopher Demokritus, and the sophist  (or false teacher) Protagoras. Ironically the Abderians were mocked for their inferior minds.

Abydos I: (or Abydus to the Latins) Milesian colony in Troas, Greek city on the Asian side of the Hellespont, facing Sestos on the European side of the narrow channel. Abydos was the home of the youth Leander who was loved by Hero, the priestess of Aphrodite (goddess of love) living in Sestos, drowned in the Hellespont.

Abydos II: (or Abdu by the Egyptians, modern Arabet el Madfuneh) the Greek name for the ancient Egyptian city of Abydu –Abydos in Greek, in Upper Egypt.

Abyla: (modern Jebel Musa) a mount in northwestern Morocco, facing the Rock of Gibraltar. The ancients considered that Abyla housed one of the pillars of Herakles. The 2^nd one was in Kalpe (modern Gibraltar).

Acanthus: leaves used in Corinthian column capitals.

Achaean League: a confederacy of twelve ancient city-states in Achaea on the Peloponnesian Peninsula. No doubt created as a protection against the raids of pirates of the north coast of the Corinthian Gulf, though we are only explicitly informed about their common worship of Zeus Amarius at Aegium and an occasional arbitration between Greek belligerents. Its importance grew in the 4^th century BC, when fighting in the Theban war (368-362 BC) against Philip (338) and Antipater (330). The league, dissolved first by Alexander the Great, survived and was then ruled by a democratic system under a central leadership. About 288 BC Antigonus Gonatas dissolved the league again, but was renewed soon after. The Romans dissolved it in 146.

Achaeans: to some scholars this is the 4^th tribe who belongs to the Greek ethno-linguistic group of tribes, jointly named the Hellenes, who occupied early Greece. Other scholars claim that the Achaeans were from Minoa Crete and the Cyclade, and that their language (Minoan) doesn’t share the same ethno-linguistic group.

Achaemenid Empire: (or the Achaemenid Persian Empire) founded by Cyrus II the Great, in 559 BC, this was the 1^st of the Persian empires, named after Achaemenes, the eponymous ancestor of the Achaemenid Dynasty which ruled Persia between 559-330 BC.

Achilles: son of Peleus and Thetis. Grandson of Aikos, bravest of the Greek Trojan heroes. It is believed that he could not be harmed (except his heel). The heel was the only spot that was not moistened when Thetis dipped him after birth in the river Six.

Acroteria: (or acroterion) ia an architectural ornament placed on a flat base called the acroter or plinth and mounted at the apex of the pediment (triangular enclosure) of an ancient building in the classical style.

Acta: (or Attics) these were the tribal people who lived in pre-historic times in ancient Attica.

Actaeus : is the eponymous founder of Attica (or Acte), it is named Cecropia after the first king of Athens.

Actian Games: these were games held in honour of Apollo Actia, celebrated on the promontory of Anactorium. This festival was restored with great splendour by Augustus at Nicopolis equal to the Olympians.

Adharkonim: (or Darkemonim) biblical term for the Daric as cited in Neh 7:70-72, 1 Ch 29:7 and Ezr 8:27.

Admete I: or an Okeanid in Greek, meaning the Unwedded, was one of the three thousand daughters of Oceanus and Tethys. Zeus gave the Okeanids, Apollo (twin brother of Artemis) and the Rivers the special obligation of having the young in their keeping [Hesiod’s Theogony, line 349].

Admete II: daughter of Eurystheus, king or Argos, from whom Herakles took the Golden Girdle of Ares when fighting the Amazon queen Hippolyte. Admete was married to the Athenian hero, Theseus.

Admetos I: king of Pherae in Thessaly. He figures in the Immortals when Zeus made Appolo Admetos’ slave. But he was a kind master and therefore Appolo arranged Admetos to marry sweet Alkestis, a pretty woman.

Admetos II: king of the Molossians in about 471 BC. He gave protection to general Themistokles after he was banished, in spite of his military service during the battle of Salamis (480 BC), by the Athenians.

Adonis: son of the ‘unholy union’ (Aphrodite’s revenge) between Kinyras, ancient king of Cyprus, and his daughter Myrrha (Zmyrna); fair lover of Aphrodite. The boy was killed by Ares’ boar [Ovid 10, 288-739].

Adrasteia: daughter of Nyx (Night, child of Khaos) and Nemesis (his spawn), goddess of Devine Retribution.

Adrastus I: mythical king of Argos, whose wife was indirectly tied to the fall of the city of Troy.

Adrastus II: the unlawful son of Gordius and the Grandson of king Midas [Histories, book 1, # 34-35].

Adrias: (or Adriatic Sea) ancient Greek name for the Adriatic Sea that separates Italy from modern Albania.

Adytum: the inner sanctuary of the temple.

Adze: is a lithic stone wood-working tool, like an axe, except that the blade is at right-angles to the haft. The instrument was used to vertically shade pieces of wood.

Æ 1: >25mm a Roman bronze coin, roughly the size of the early imperial sesterce but of a different weight.

Æ 2: 21-25mm (reminiscent of the maiorina) a Roman bronze coin introduced by Gratian in c 379 AD.

Æ 3: 17-21mm (or may be centenionalis) a Roman diminutive billon coin, weighing little over 3g, issued 1^st  by Constantine II in c 318 AD, when his mint was under western control.

Æ 4: <17mm (or ½ the centenionalis) a Roman bronze coinage introduced in c 379 AD, called nummus.

Aea: (aia) Area best known as the land of the Golden Fleece and the kingdom of Aietes. Aia is the unusual ancient name of Colchis –Kolkhis in Greek.

Aeakides: meaning the descendants of Aeakus, son of Zeus with Aegina, grandfather of Achilles and Ajax.

Aedilis: a Roman magistrate who exercised the Edileship, which was of 3 kinds: Plebeian, Curule, and Cereal.

Aedilis cerealis: this Roman institution was created for the purpose of assisting in the conveyance of corn from foreign lands to Rome, and of the distribution to the Roman people. This is known as Annona.

Aediles curules: this refers to the office of edileship, bestowed to the patricians. For the first time in 368 BC.

Aedilis plebbis: this office of plebeian edileship was one of the eldest Roman offices, given to plebeians. It embraced many functions, such as the maintenance of the baths, aqueducts, sewers, streets, and highways.

Aegean Culture: this culture denotes the prehistoric civilization of the Greek Dark Ages (1200-800 BC).

Aegeus: a mythic king of ancient Athens. He was the son of Pandion and the consort of Aethra.

Aegina I: a nymph and one of the daughters of Asopos and the sister of Thebe, Kerkyra, Sinope and Antiope. Zeus fathered by her Aeakus, the grandfather of Achilles and Ajax [Histories, book 5, # 80].

Aegina II: an island in the Saronic Gulf between Argolis and Attica, named after Nymph Aegina. The island has been inhabited since the Neolitic Period (3000 BC) and was subsequently settled by the Minoans, the Achaeans and finally by the Dorians. Defeated by the Persians in 480 BC, together with neighbouring Salamis, the Athenians took control and Aegina ceased to be an free state [Conquest of Homer & Hesiod, line 331].

Aegina III: an ancient city-state on the island of Aegina, located on the western side of the isled. Its coinage was related to the temple of Aphodite whose sacred creature is the sea-turtle (iconography of Aegina mint).

Aeginetic standard: (or Pheidonian standard) is an ancient weight standard, may be derived from the Phoenician as the weights of some of heaviest Aeginetic coins indicate (Journal of the Institute of Bankers, 1879) or from Egypt, with which country the Aeginetans were in close trade relations (Herod. II, 178).

Aeginetic silver standard: an ancient sovereign relative value rate of gold to silver in Aegina equal to 1:15.

Aegis: a breastplate with in its centre Medusa’s head; shield of Zeus with Medusa’s head on the front to hit fear and panic into any foe. Worn by Athena as a shielding chest covering. To the ancient Egyptians the aegis  was also a broad half-moon shaped collar usually surmounted by the head of a deity; a protective amulet.

Aegium: ancient city-state on the Peloponnesian Peninsula, in the district of Achaea on the Gulf of Corinth, meating place of the Achaean League.

Aegle I: one of the 3 daughters of Nyx (Night), known collectively as the Hesperides [Theogony, line 215].

Aegle II: the daughter of Panopeus and one of the legal wives of the Athenian hero, Theseus (ex of Ariade).

Aegospotami: a river in ancient Thrace, which flowed into the Hellespont [Histories, book 9, # 119].

Aegyptus: the ancient Roman name of Egypt –Aegyptos is Greek; also the son of Belus and brother of Danaus, he was given the rule of Egypt. He had 50 sons which were supposed to marry the fifty daughters of his brother; descendent of the heifer maiden, Io (daughter of king Inakhus of Argos).

Aello: one of the two winged-women, the sisters Aello and Okypete, known as the Harpies. Hesiod refers to them as <<Harpies of the lovely hair, winged women soaring aloft like birds>> Both maidens are the daughters of Thaumas and Elektra [Theogony, line 267].

Aeneid: an epic poem by the Roman poet Virgil; story of Aeneas who left Troy after its destruction.

Aeneas: a Trojan prince; fabled son of Venus by Anchises, who accompanied Paris to Troy, where he married Cruesa. After taking the city the Greek proclaimed that every free man might carry away some portion of his goods. Aeneas then took with him the his household gods (Penates), which touched the Greeks such so that he was allowed to return and pick some other goods. The mythic hero then took his son, and carried his father on his shoulders. Upon this sight the Greeks liberated his entire family and presented Aeneas with the means to leave Troy, and after many wanderings on the Mediterranean waters he landed in Latium in Italy.

Aeolia: a floating island supposedly slightly north of Sicily, abode of Aeolus, lord of the winds.

Aeolians: 1 of the 3 Greek ethno-linguistic groups, jointly named the Hellenes, who occupied early Greece.

Aeolus I: Aiolos in Greek, was the lord of the wind (present of Zeus). He lived on a floating island which is assumed to be located slightly north of Sicily. He is most famous for assisting Odysseus in his quest to return home after the fall of Troy [Odyssey, book 10, lines 1-76]. Alternatively legendary founder of Aeolia.

Aeolus II: son of Kretheus and the father of Aeson, thus the grandfather of the famous adventurer, Jason.

Aerarii: classless Romans, not from the thirty tribes of Servius Tulius, subject to a poll-tax which was fixed by the censor. They were: inhabitants of occupied cities, the infamia, and people branded by the censor.

Aerarium: (derived from the Latin aes) this is how the Roman public treasury was called. It was seated in the temple of Saturn at the Forum Romanum on the eastern slope of mount Capitolinus; the public finances.

Aurarium militare: created in 6 AD by Augustus as a military treasury, it contained all cash raised for maintaining the army, including its pension fund for disabled soldiers. It was headed by the tribuni aerarii.

Aes or As: the term served for the Romans, to designate every kind of money, whether gold, silver or brass.

Aesculapius: the son of Apollo and of Coronis, daughter of Phlegius, king of Thessaly. God of medicine.

Aes Grave or Libralis: (heavy bronze) bronze or brass in bars, of the weight of one Roman Liberal pound –372g, used in 269-215 BC as their money before the introduction of the silver denarius in c 211 BC.

Aes Rude: (raw bronze) this is a piece of crude copper, called after its uncouth form, generally lighter than 372 g, without any mark, used for money transfer prior to Roman coinage during 5^th and 4^th century BC.

Aes Signatum: according to Pliny also As; early 3^rd century BC Roman cast coinage (275-269 BC) consisting of a stamped piece in the form of a rectangular brass bar of 372g foreseen with a raised design.

Aesculapius: the Roman god of medicine and healing. He is shown as a man of mature years, holding a staff about which a snake twines.

Agathokles: (318-289) tyrant of Syracuse and enemy of Cartage.  He concurred a large part of Cartesian territory. Father in law of Pyrrhos and Epeiros.

Agesilaus 1^st: he was the 5^th Agiadai king of Sparta, ruling c 815-785 BC.

Agesilaus 2^nd: he was the 19th Eurypontidai king of the city-state of Sparte (399-360 BC).

Agesipolis 1^st: he was the 20^th Agaiadai king of Sparta, ruling c 395-380 BC.

Agesipolis 2^nd: he was the 22^nd Agiadai king of Sparta, ruling c 371-370 BC.

Agesipolis 3^rd: he was the 29^th Agaiadai king of Sparta, ruling c 219-215 BC.

Agis 1^st: he was the first eponymous Eurypontidai king of Sparta, ruling from c 930-900 BC.

Agis 2^nd: he was the 18^th Eurypontidai king of Sparta, ruling from 427-399 BC.

Agis 3^rd: he was the 21^st Eurypontidai king of Sparta, ruling from 338-331 BC.

Agis 4^th: he was the 25^th Eurypontidai king of Sparta, ruling from 244-241 BC.

Agiadai: (or Agiads) these are the descendents from king Agis I, who was one of the first kings of Sparta, who ruled jointly with king Eurypon (the Eurypontidai) early 9^th century BC Sparta.

Aglaia: she was one of the three graces with Euphrosyne and Thalia, who represented splendor, beauty and adornment [Theogony, line 907-911, and 946; Iliad, book 2, lines 671-674].

Agnostic: (–agnotos in Greek, means: not known) someone who believes that god is incomprehensible.

Agon I: a cultural contest or festival in ancient Greece, during which awards were given to the best athletics, dramatists, musicians, poets and other artists.

Agon II: a term used in the formalized structure of a Greek comedy, debate or argumentation. It consisted of six parts: the proloque or set of the play’s theme, the parodos or introduction, the agon or argumentation, the parabasis or choral ode, the episodes or resolving the argumentation, and exodus or conclusion.

Agora I: a generic Greek term meaning: the people’s assembly (alternatively: the chief’s assembly). Today this would be the people’s city council, or the place where they would meet; common term for market-place.

Agora II: (plural agorai) in ancient literature Agora was a metropolis on the narrow peninsula known as Khersonese in Thrace [Histories, book 7, # 58]. Note that in Portuguese, the word agora means now.

Agriope: (or Eurydice) a dryad or tree nymph. Bitten by a snake whilst being chased by Aristaios (Apollo’s son), she died. He husband, Orpheus was so distraught that he ventured into the underworld to free her.

Agrios: one of the three sons of Odysseus by the nymph Circe –Kirke in Greek [Theogony, line 1011-1015].

Agrius: one of the giants who, after a failed try to oust the Olympians, was imprisoned under mount Aetna.

Agron: 1^st mythic ruler of Sardis, Persia. Son of Ninus and descendent of Herakles [Histories, book 1, # 7].

Aguies: guardian of the streets, and alternative name for Apollo; a pillar in front of of the house to evoke protection by Appolo.

Aia I: (or Aea) in ancient times that was the name of Colchis –Kolkhis in Greek, a land on the eastern edge of  the Black Sea and south of the Caucasus mountains, founded by Egyptians in 14^th century BC [Herodotus].

Aia II: realm of king Aietes, best known as the land of the Golden Fleece [Histories, book 2, # 102-106].

Aiaia: (or Aeaea) although not for sure, that is an island on the west coast of Italy, west of the Vesuvius, inhabited by pretty nymph, Circe –Kirke in Greek. After holding Odysseus seven year, Zeus ordered her to let him continue his wanderings to Ithica [Odyssey, book 10, line 135; book 11, line 70; and book 12, line 3].

Aias I: the Greek alpha iota (ai) is a vowel-digraph, pronounced as a short E. Aias is Romanised in Ajax.

Aias II: son of Oileus and Eriopis; half-brother of Meon; mythic king of Lorkis in central ancient Greece.

Aides: (or Aidoneus) Hades who was the lord of the Underworld [Theogony, line 913].

Aidoneus I: (or Aides) Hades who was the lord of the Underworld [Theogony, line 913].

Aidoneus II: the eccentric king of the Molossians married with Persephone, and named after the lord of the Dead, Hades. His daughter was Core –Kore in Greek; alternatively king of the city of Thesprotia in Epirus.

Aidos: that’s the personification of modesty, respect and shame [Hesiod in Works and Days, line 200].

Aietes I: he was the son of the Greek god of the sun, Helios, and the Okeanid, Perseis [Theogony, line 957].

Aietes II: the legendary king of Colchis, and the husband of Eidyia; brother of the sorceress nymph, Circe; father of Medea and Khalkiope, with Eidyia; father of a son, Apsyrtos, with nymph, Asterodeia. The king is most famous for giving sanctuary to Phrixus when he came on the flying ram with the Golden Fleece.

Aigai: a city in Aiolis, an inland township on the river Pythikos.

Aigeai: a city in Cilicia, on the north-western shores of the Gulf of Issos.

Aigialeus: son of Adrastus, and single casualty at the 1^st siege of Thebes (by the Epigoni).

Aigikoreis: (is Greek for Goat-Herds or –Feeders) this was one of the oldest tribes of Ionia on the western coast of Asia Minor. The other tribes were: the Argadeis or labourers, the Geleontes (also the Teleontes) or farmers, and the Oplites (also the Hoplites) or the men in armour –military.

Aigis: (or Aegis) the shield or cloak of Zeus, but usually worn by his daughter Athena. When shaken it causes storm and thunder. In Greek art it is represented as a skin worn over shoulders and breast.

Aigisthos: son of Thysestes; cousin of the legendary Agamemnon, leader from the siege of Troy. Killed by Agamemnon’s son, Orestes, once he and Klytemnestra conspired against the life of Agamemnon [Odyssey].

Aigle: (or Ariadne) according to Plutarkh, she was the daughter of Panopeus, king of Minos, and of Theseus.

Aigokeros: (is Greek for Goat-Horned) that is the constellation of Capricorn.

Aineias: (Aeneas to the Latin) he was the son of the mortal Ankhises (or Anchises) and the goddess of love, Aphrodite [Theogony, line 1008]; hero in the Trojan War [Iliad, book 2, line 820 and 822; book 5, lines 312-320, line 468 and 534; book 13, lines 459-465; book 20, lines 307 and 325-336]; mythic settler in Latium.

Aiolos I: son of Hellen; father of Alkyone, Athamas, Kalyke, Kanake, Makareos, Salmoneus and Sisyphus; brother of Doris and Xuthus; Legendary founder of the Aeolian nation.

Aiolos II: son of Kretheus; father of Aeson; grandfather of Jason –Iason for the Greek.

Aiolos III: (or Aeolus) lord and keeper of the winds, a control received from Zeus; lived on the floating island of Aeolia (slightly north of Sicily?) [Argonautika, book 4, lines 764-765; Odyssey, book 10, lines 1-76].

Aiolis IV: a country in Asia Minor on the coast between Ionia and Mysia.

Aiora: (in Greek this means: swing) it was a festival from ancient Attica at which dolls were swung from trees to commemorate the suicidal hanging of Erigones (by grieve, after the killing of his father Ikarius).

Aiora: a festival of ancient Attica at which dolls were swung from trees to commemorate Erigone’s hanging suicide (aiora is Greek for swing).

Aisa: she is the goddess of Destiny. Quite similar to Moira, the goddess of Fate.

Aisepos I: one of the twin sons of Boukolion and the nymph Abarbare; brother of Pedasos. Both were killed by a Greek soldier named Euryalos, while defending the city of Troy [Iliad, book 6, line 20].

Aisepos II: a river god, and one of the sons of Okeanos and Tethys.

Aisepos III: a river that flows into the Propontis from the mainland, Phrygia. Zeus had given hem, together with Apollo and the Okeanids, the special duty of having the juvenile in their care [Theogony, line 342].

Aison: father of Jason and one of the sons of Occean (Okeanos to the Greek) [Theogony, line 992].

Aithalides: half brother of the Argonauts, Erytos and Ekhion; son of Hermes and Eupolemeia. He was the herald of the Argonauts because of his indelible memory [Argonautika, book 1, lines 51-56; 640-652].

Aither: a child of Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night). The child was conceived by Hemera (Day) [Theogony, line 124]. Aither literally means brighter or pure air, as opposed to the lower atmosphere.

Aithon: that was one of the chariot horses from Hector’s quadriga in the Trojan War. The other horses were: Xanthos, Lampos and Podargos [Iliad, book 8, line 185].

Aisepos: one of the twin sons of Boukolion and nymph Abarbare, killed in the Trojan War; a river god.

Aison: father of Jason –Iason in Greek, and son of Kretheus [Theogony, line 992].

Aithalides: son of Hermes and Eupolemia. He was the herald of the Argonauts [Argonautika, book 1, lines 51-56, and 640-652].

Aither: (or Aether) that was the child of Erebus or Darkness, and Nyx or Night [Theogony, line 124].

Aithon: one of the horses of Hektor’s quadriga in the siege of Troy [Iliad, book 8, line 185].

Ajax: (Aias by the Greek) son of Telamon. For some reason we only generally use the hero’s Roman name Ajax. Aias was a Greek hero in the Trojan War, who had committed blasphemy after mocking the Immortals [Iliad, book 4, lines 500-511].

Akademus: assisted with Kastor and Polydeukes, Pollux to the Romans, the hero Akademus rescued their siter Helen, after revealing the kidnapper’s (that was Theseus) place.

Akakallis: daughter of Minos, the son of Zeus by Europa, who was driven from her home by her father and became a dwell in Libya. She was one of the consorts of Apollo with whom she had a son Amphithemis.

Akamas: he was the son of Theseus and Phaedra; brother of Demophon, king of the city-state of Athens.

Akanthus: patterned leaf design, copied from the Acathus Spinosa plant, to decorate the Corinthian capital.

Akarnania: the coastal region of the west-central part of ancient Greece, boundering the river Akhelous on the south and the Gulf of Amurakia on the north.

Akaste: one of the three thousand daughters of Okeanos and Tethys, the Okeanids [Theogony, line 356].

Akastos: son of king Pelias of the city-state of Iolkos, the city where Jason and the Argonauts left for their quest for the Golden Fleece [Argonautika, book 1, lines 224-227].

Akhaemenes: an ancient royal Persian dynasty (559-330 BC). Created by Cyrus the Great (559-529 BC) son of the Median princess Mandane through Darius III son of Artaxerxes and Sisygambus (336-330 BC) until defeated by Alexander III the Great in 330 BC [Histories, book 3, # 12].

Akhaemenids: (or Achaemenids) the 1^st royal house of Persia founded by the legendary Achaemenes.

Akhaia: (or Achaea) the ancient Greek from Attica, called Demeter Achaea –Akhaia in Greek.

Akhaians: (or Achaeans) one of the four tribes from the Greek bronze Age (Dorians, Aeolians, Ionians).

Akhas: (or Aka) native tribal inhabitans, known as the Hrusso, originating from tribal migration from Burma, bordering India, at the Bay of Bengal, to ancient Greece and from there to pre-historic Ephesos.

Akheloios: one of the sons of Okeanus and Tethys; married to the Muse, Terpsikhore (parents of the Sirens) and river god, who was the Lord of all rivers [Theogony, line 340]; river in western Greece.

Akheron: (or the River of Woe) a river in the Underworld over which Kharon –Charon to the Latins, ferries the dead. In Roman times Acheron was thought to be a lake [Histories, book 5, # 92].

Akhilleus: (or Achilles) the bravest and most handsome Greek warrior in the siege of Troy; lover of Patroklos (is Killed by the Trojans); killed Hektor (Trojan leader) in rage and defiled his corpse; son of king Peleus and the Nereid, Thetis. Captain of the Greek army, subjected to Agamemnon, refused to fight when he felt wronged in the division of the spoils of war. Killed before the fall of Troy (rivalry over his armour).

Akhlys: (or Achlys) this is the Spirit, Death-Mist or Darkness of death. He figured on the shield of Herakles.

Akis: lover of Galatea, the Nereid; killed by the Cyclops (Polyphemos) because of jealousy.

Akmon: one of the Monkey-Men known as the Kerkopes [in the fragmented remains of the Epic Cyle].

Akmoneia: an important city in central Phrygia.

Akolyte: (from the Greek word akoloothos, is: attendant or follower) an altar attendant.

Akontistai: the javelin throwers in a Greek army. Their action was: charge, throw and next quickly retreat.

Akragas: (moderns Agrigento) a city-state on the central-southern coast of Sicily.

Akrisios: (or Akrisius) a king of Argos; grandfather of Perseus; father of Danae (impregnated by Zeus).

Akrokorinth: citadel of the ancient city-state of Korinth or Corinth, overseeing the Isthmus of Corinth. On its summit was a temple of Aphrodite (goddess of love) which housed images of Helios and Eros (god of love).

Akropolis I: the site of the Parthenon and citadel of Athens.

Akropolis II: as a generic term, meaning the citadel or high fortified area of any ancient Greek city.

Akrotatos: the 25^th Agiadai king of the city-state of Sparta, ruling from 265-262 BC.

Akroterion: an ornament placed on a column of pediment (stele) in the Doric style.

Akrotiri: an ancient Minoan city on the island of Thera in the Aegean Sea.

Aktaeon: grandson of Kadmos, founder of Thebes. Aktaeon spied on Artemis while she bathed. She changed him, as punishment for offending her, into a stag and he was then killed by his dogs [Ovid 3, 131-252].

Aktaie: one of the fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris, collectively known: the Nereids [Theogony, line 249].

Aktaios: (aktaios means: coast-land) an ancient name for Attica, a region in south-eastern Greece.

Aktis: son of Rhoda and Helius; banished (for fratricide) to Egypt, where he became an astrologer.

Aktium: (or Actium) a promontory in north-western Greece, celebrated for its Roman naval battle in 31 BC (defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra by Octavian and his friend an commanding officer Agrippa.

Aktor I: supposed father of Molione, Eurytus, and Kteaus; brother of Augeas, king of Elis, who owned the stabeles that Herakles was ordered to clean [his 5^th Labour] in one day.

Aktor II: son of Azeus; father of the maiden Astioche, who was secretly taken by Ares the god of War and fathered her two sons (Ialmenos and Askalaphos [Iliad, book 2, line 513].

Akusilaus: the famous lat 6^th century BC Greek author of Genealogies; he was from Argos.

Alabanda: an ancient Carian settlement on the river Marsyas.

Alabaster: a fine-grained gypsum used for artistic and decorative figurines.

Alabastron: a jar for oil, parfumes or ointments. It had a flattened lip with a narrow neck, an lengthened body, and was rounded (bulky) at the base.

Alalkomeneus: means Protectress. Another name for Athena, at times used in union: Athene Alalkomeneis.

Alalkomeneus: he raised Athena and reconciled Zeus and Hera.

Alastor: (or herdsman’s plague) an evil and avenging Spirit.

Aldus: king of the city-state Tegea in south-eastern Arkadia on the Peloponnesian Peninsula north of Sparta.

Alebion: son of Poseidon, lord of the Sea; was killed by Herakles in his 10^th Labour, the cattle from Geryon.

Alekto: she was one of the Erinys or Furies who were born from the blood of Ouranos (the Heavens).

Aletes I: son of Aigisthos and his lover Klytemnestra, who became ruler of Mykenai –Mycenae to the Latins.

Aletes II: conqueror of Corinth; descendent of Herakles.

Alethia: an ancient Greek personification of the virtue of Truth.

Alexander: (or Paris) the hero Alexandros (means literally defending men); one of the major characters in the Iliad; descendent of the Trojan royal family.

Alexander III: (356 – 323 BC) son of Philippe II of Macedon. Known as Alexander the Great [see txt-link].

Alexandria: many cities, founded by Alexander the Great in Asia Minor and Egypt were called Alexandria.  Most famous was the sea port Alexandria in the Nile-delta, a centre of science at the time of the Ptolemaic.

Alexandrian tetradrachms: Alexandria issued billon tetradrachms (32-7% silver content) in large numbers between the reign of Augustus and the closing of the mint during the reign of Diocletian. These coins were mainly used to pay the salaries of parliamentary officials, the permanent garrison and the temporary troops in Alexandria (Egypt). Also used to provide a subsidiary with Greek legends for Imperial propaganda in Egypt. Their theoretic value under Augustus was c 24 to the bound or 1 Roman tetradrachm equalled c HS120-125.

Alexandria Troas: (or Antigoneia) a coastal city in Troas, founded in c 310 BC, by Antigonos I (general in Alexander’s army). It was originally named after him: Antigoneia. A decade later, Lysimachos renamed it.

Alexandrian volumes: 1 amphora = 1,592.540959 cubic inches, equals 2 urna = 796.270329 cubic inches, or 8 congius = 199.0675882 cubic inches, or 48 sextarius = 33.177930 cubic inches.

Alexandtrian (trade) weights: this standard is from c 320 BC. 1 talent = 402,739.2 grains, equals 60 mina = 6,712.32 grains, or 80 libra = 5,034.24 grains, or 960 uncia = 419.52 grains. Rather sophisticated.

Alexandros: (or Paris) one of the major characters in the Iliad; descendent of the Trojan royal family.

Alexiares: son of Herakles by the goddess of Youth and Spring, Hebe “of the golden crown”.

Alexikakus: means Adverter of Evil. Another name of Apollo, when he foresaw a devastating plague during the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). At times used in union: Apollo Alexikakus.

Algea: means pain and suffering. The children of Discord or Eris [Theogony, line 228].

Alialat: Arabian goddess of Love, similar to the Greek Aphrodite [Histories, book 1, # 131 and book 3, # 8].

Alimede: on of the fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris, collectively called the Nereids [Theogony, line 255].

Alimenta: an Imperial alimentary program to handout foot to the Romans on the Italian peninsula, started and rolled out first by Trajan in 101 AD.

Alinda: a city in Caria, about twelve miles southwest of Alabanda.

Alkaeus: son of Androgeus, grandson of king Minos of Crete; a poet from 600 BC Mytilene, isle of Lesbos; son of Perseus and the father of Amphiryon, and hence step-grandfather of Herakles.

Alkamenes: the 18^th Agiadai king of the city-state of Sparta, ruling c 740-700 BC. Little is known about him.

Alkandre: she was the wife of Polybos, provider of many gifts to Helen and Menelaos, when they halted in Thebes, on their way to Troy [Odyssey, book 4, line 126-135].

Alkestis: the wife of king Admetos of Pherae in south-eastern Thessaly.[Argonautika, book 1, lines 49-50]; but also the name of a tragedy (438 BC) by Euripides which tells the heroic story of a woman saving her man.

Alkibiades: a politician and also a general from Athens (c 450-404 BC).

Alkimede: she was the wife of Aeson, and the mother of Jason (quest for the Golden Fleece); daughter of Phylakos and Kylmene [Argonautika, book 1, lines 46, 233, 251, 259 and 276].

Alkimedes: son of Jason and Medea, the daughter of the legendary king Aietes of Kalkhis (Colchis).

Alkimedon I: son of Laerkes, a captain of the Myrmidons during the siege of Troy [Iliad, book 16, line 197].

Alkimedion II: a hero from Arkadia (Peloponnesian Peninsula). His daughter, Philo, was seduced by Hrakles.

Alkinoos: (or Alkinous) king of the Phaiakians; father of Nausikaa and Laodamas [Argonautika, book 4, lines 1098-1109; Odyssey, book 6, line 12].

Alkithoe: she is the daughter of Minyas. She was driven mad in retaliation for mocking Dionysus.

Alkmaeon: son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle; commander of the 2^nd expedition against Thebes as one of the Epigoni; killed his mother for sending his father to a certain death; punished by Erinys for misplaced bravery.

Alkman: a 7^th century BC Lydian poet (1^st half), from Sardis, Asia Minor, but resident in the austere country of Sparta; apart from Hymns to Artemis, sung by young maidens dressed as doves at the Feast of Plow, little of his work however remains [this is a portrayal of Spartan women].

Alkmene: wife of Amphitryon, who killed his father-inlaw Elektryon. Zeus fathered her Herakles, Amphityon fathered Iphikles [Theogony, lines 526 and 943; Iliad, book 14, lines 323-324, book 19, lines 98 and 119].

Alkyone: (means: sea-bird) one of the Pleiades, thus one of the (7) daughters of Atlas; on the other hand, considered as one of the daughters of Aiolos with Keyx (changed into a kingfisher); used as pet name of Cleopatra (abducted by Apollo), daughter of Marpessa and Idas, when returned [Iliad, book 9, lines 556-564].

Alkyoneus: a giant, killed by Herakles whilst returning a stone, thrown at him, by hitting it with his club; or the name of an invulnerable giant at home, yet killed by Herakles after dragging him away from home.

Alliance: (or Concord) between different cities (sometimes more than two) was a frequent usage in ancient times. Concord existed between neighbouring cities and also between cities situated at a distance.

Alliance coinage: under the power of the Romans, alliance with them is extremely noted on some coins. The state of political concord is itself recorded in the legend and even personified in the type. In some instances the citizens of two cities declared themselves allied to each other.

Aloas: the goddess of the Thrashing Floor [where the scattered sheaves of grain were thrashed by cattle].

Aloeus: husband of Iphimedeia, with whom he fathered the Giants, Otos and Ephialtes; son of Poseidon.

Alope: daughter of Ceryon who was abducted by Poseidon, lord of the Sea, and bore him a son, Hippothoos.

Alosedne: (means: sea-born) an alternative name for Aphrodite, the goddess of love.

Alpheius: name of the River, on the Peloponnesian Peninsula, diverted by Herakles [in his 5^th Labor] when cleaning the stables of Augeas; a river god of the Alpheius river [Theogony, line 338].

Alyattes: (± 610/17 – 560) king of Lydia; father of the legendary king Croesus. He campaigned against the Medians. On the brink of the battle at Halys, May 28, 585, a solar eclipse occurred as predicted by Thalos.

Amaseia: this was the ancient capital of Pontos, until early 2^nd century BC. Birthplace of Mithradates the Great. The ancient city was located on the river Isis.

Amastis: a city in Paphlagonia, founded in 300 BC, on the site of the past city of Sesamos on the Black Sea.

Amathea: a Nereid; daughter of Nereus and Doris; a nymph, even the goat, who nurtured the infant Zeus.

Amaltheia: the goat that nursed Zeus at Crete. The horn of this animal symbolizes richness and plenty ness: “horn of abundance”.

Amazons: female warriors; daughters of Ares (Lord of War) and heroic womenfolk that lived in the Caucasus. Their queen was Hippolyte [the 9^th Labor of Herakles: retrieving the Amazon’s belt).

Amazons I: according to Herodotus, a mythical ancient nation of all-female warriors, from a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia (east of the Tanais in the corner of the Maeotian Lake west of the Caspian Sae).

Amber Islands: (or Elektrides) isles of the north Sea were called Amber Islands by the ancient Greeks.

Ambrosia: ancient Greek name for the food of the Immortals.

Amestris: she was the heavy-handed cruel wife of the Persian king Xerxes, and the mother of Darius the 1^st.

Amisos: (or Peiraeeus) a Greek city on the Black Sea coast of Pontos, founded in the 6^th century BC, but refounded by the Athenians in the 5^th century BC. They named it Peiraeeus.

Ammon: Egyptian god, Zeus to the Greek. He had his oracle in Libya which Alexander III consulted prior to his march to Egypt. The most significant temple and oracle of Ammon was located in the Ammonium oasis. Here Alexander the Great was declared “son of Ammon”. Amon was represented by a ram-horn (Alexander III is portrayed with the ram-horn on a stater issued by Lysimachos) [Histories, book 2, # 54-58].

Amor: god of love. Son of Aphrodite, visualized as a little boy with bow and arrows.

Amorgos: one of the eastern-most Cyclade islands in the southern Aegean Sea.

Ampelos: he was one of the Satirs who usually accompany Dionysus.

Amphiaraus: one of the seven against Thebes, and one of the participants in the Calydonian Hunt; husband of Eriphyle who bore him Alkmaeon and Amphilokhus; inherited the Necklace of Harmonia as his birthright.

Amphictyonic League: a martial-political council, supposedly founded by Amphiktyon to settle holy matters about the use of land, composed by several city-states who met twice a year at Delphi and Thermopylae.

Amphidamus: he joined with his brother Kepheus the Argonauts in the quest for the Golden Fleece. Son of Aldus. The city of Chalcis honoured him with competitive games [Argonautika, book 1, lines 161-171].

Amphiktyon: brother of Hellen, the founder of the Hellenistic race; son of Deukalion and Pyrrha.

Amphillogiai: (or disputes) joint name for the daughters of Discord, Eris to the Greek [Theogony, line 229].

Amphilokhus: founder of the city of Poseideium in northern Syria; son of Amphiaraus, brother of Alkmaeon.

Amphimarus: son of the Lord of the Sea, Poseidon; fathered (?) the poet Linus by the Muse, Urania.

Amphinomus: one of the suitors, the most aggressive one, of Penelope [Odyssey, book 22, line 284].

Amphion I: son of Zeus by Antiope. Twin brother of Zethos. Husband of Niobe. Famous flutist. By the sound of his flute, the stones formed a fortified wall (bulwarks) around Thebes [Argonautika, book 1, line 735-741].

Amphion II: Argonaut; son of Hyperasios & Hypso; brother of Asterios [Argonautika, book 1, lines 176-178].

Amphion III: son of king Iasos of stronghold Orkhomenos in central Boeotia [Odyssey, book 11, line 283].

Amphipolis: a city-state on the Strymon river in Thrace, c 3.2 km from the coast of the Gulf of Strimon, inhabited since the Neolithic Period up to The Bronze Age (3000-1200 BC). Inhabited by the ancient Greek from 7^th century BC; important gold mines; sovereign in 442 BC; invaded by Philip II of Macedon in 357 BC.

Amphipolos: (means busy-one) an characteristic epithet for Aphrodite, goddess of Love.

Amphiro: one of the Okeanid, the collective name of the three thousand daughters of Okeanos and Tethys.

Amphithemis: (or Garamas) son of Apollo by Akakallis; lived in Libya (then all of Africa west of Egypt) and married a Nymph, who bore him two sons Nasamon and Kaphauros [Argonautika, book 4, lines 1485-1501].

Amphitrite: (or Queen of the Sea) a Nereid; one of the fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris. She was the wife of Poseidon, lord of the Sea, and had helped Theseus (a son of Poseidon) to retrieve king’s Minos’ ring from the sea, as a test of his divine heritage; mother of Triton [Theogony, lines 240-264].

Amphitryon: son of Alkaios, king of Tiryns (later of Thebai too), husband of Alkmene; father of Iphikles; step-father of Herakles, for Zeus changed into Amphitryon, took Alkmene and so became father of Heracles.

Amphora: a two-handled vase used for serving wine or oil; larger ones were for storing liquids and grain.

Amphoriskos: a small amphora shape used especially for Hellenistic glass vessels.

Amyklae: an ancient city-state, south-east of Sparta on the banks of the Eurotas river in the Lakonia district.

Amyklaean Apollon: an epithet of Apollo, for Apollon of Amyklia, an ancient sity-state in Lakanian.

Amyklas: father of Hyakinthus, the founder of the city-state of Amyklea on the Peloponnesian Peninsula.

Amykos: king of the Bebrykians; son of Poseidon, with the nymph, Melie; a mercilessness boxer who killed Amykos and challenged Polydeukes –Pollux to the Latins, in fierce combat [Argonautika, book 12, lines 1-10].

Amymone: a Denaid seduced by Poseidon who fathered Nauplios; one of the fifty daughters of Denaus (hence the term Denaids), who were forced to marry their fifty cousins; also the name of a spring.

Amyntas: he was king of Macedon, father of Philip II, and grand-father of Alexander III the Great.

Amyntor: unfaithful spouse of Kleobule; father of Phoinix [Iliad, book 9, lines 425-435].

Amythaon: supporter of Jason’s claim to the throne of Iolkos; son of Kretheus and Tyro.

Anactoria: (or Millawanda) this is how Miletos was called in Greek myths.

Anabasis: (or the Persian Expedition) the word means: going up; originally a term for someone travelling from the Aegean Sea to the centre of the Persian Empire; also: a book by Xenophon about Greek armed force –mercenaries, who were forced to fight their way out of Persia back to Greek territory.

Anadyone: (or risen from the sea) this is one of the epithets of Aphrodite, the goddess of Love.

Anaetius: after the Peloponnesian War of 431-404 BC, Athens was ruled by thirty mean –tyrants, during a short lived oligarchy (1 year). These men were known as the Thirty Tyrants. One of them was Anaetius.

Anahita: she was the Sassanid divinity of the waters (Aban), associated with fertility, healing and wisdom.

Anaitis: this is a Persian goddess who was equalled to Artemis and worshipped in Lydia.

Anakeion: (or temple of the Dioscuri) Castor and Pollux, Polydeukes to the Greek, had several sanctuaries in ancient Greece. These were called: Anakeion.

Anakreon: an Athens based poet from late 6^th century BC Teos, Lydia, Asia Minor. Little of his work remains.

Anarkhia: (or without Archon) after the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC) Athens was ruled for one year by Thirty Tyrants. The city-state was therefore without an Archon. The term anarkhia refers to that year.

Anastole: two central locks of hair combed upward, as on portraits of Alexander the Great.

Anatolia: (or modern Turkey) this is a synonym for the peninsula of ancient Asia Minor.

Anauros: a river in Thessaly near the eastern coast of the mainland to the Gulf of Pagasai. In this river the hero Jason lost his sandal on his way to Iolkos (eastern coastal Greece) [Argonautika, book 1, line 9].

Anax: is ancient Greek for High King. In Homer’s Iliad it refers to Agamemnon and Priam.

Anaxagoras: he is a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher (500-428 BC), member of the Ionian School, centered in Miletos. Hence a cosmologist since he was largely a physicalist who tried to explain the nature of matter.

Androklos: founder of Ephesos, in c 150 BC. He was the son of Kodros, the last mythic king of Athens.

Ancus Marcius: the 4^th king of Rome. He ruled in late 7^th century BC, and founded of the harbour of Ostia.

Androclïdae: offsprings of Androclos, maker of Ephesos and a son of the famous last king of Athens, Kodros.

Ankh: an Egyptian hieroglyphic sign for life, the symbol for long or eternal existence. To them this was also an attribute of the deities, who presented it to the pharaoh.

Antae: (or templum in antis) this is how Vitruvius named a Greek temple in which the smallest of the four walls, in which the entrance was (east), were replaced by two columns which carried the beams of the roof.

Antandros: an Aiolian colony located on the northern shore of the Gulf of Adramytteion in Troas.

Antefix: an ornamental termination for roof tiles.

Anthemion: (or honeysuckle) an ornament of honeysuckle or palm leaves in a radiating cluster.

Animimenes: (585 – 525) philosopher from Milete. He believed that air is the original element, material from which all is derived by thickening and rarefying.

Anchises: father of Aeneas. He was punished by Zeus because he bragged about his engagement with Aphrodite, and was lamed.

Andromeda: daughter of Kepheus and Kassiopeia. She claimed to be prettier than the Nereids. Poseidon punished her for this insolence by sending a monster to destroy the land. By offering Andromedie, Kepheus could liberate the land. So he did, but Perseus killed the monster and married Andromeda (Ovid 4, 663-803).

Annona I: a provision of victuals (generally supply of corn) for one year. A distinction was made between Annona civilis or corn for the people, and militaris or corn appropriated for the military during a campaign.

Annona II: (or Abundantia) the Roman allegorical divinity of plenty.

Annuli: (or rings) after the neck of the Doric capital, are several rings, called annuli, right before the square top of the capital, In its upper part the annuli widen and are generally adorned by several horizontal stripes.

Antae: (plural anta) a pilaster forming at each end of the projecting lateral wall of the first Greek temples.

Antalkidas: Spartan man of state. He persuades Artaxerxes to help the Spartans. This made the Athens and their allies sign peace in 387 BC. As from then it was agreed that the Greek states would remain autonomous, and the sity-states in Asia Minor would be left to the Persians.

Antefix: (or ante-fixae) these are the vertical blocks which terminate the convering tiles of the temple roof.

Antenor: brother in law of Priamos. He was married to the priestess Theano.

Antigonos: general of Alexander the Great. Satrap of Phrygia. Killed in action at Ipsos in 301 BC.

Antilochos: swift-footed son of Nestor, defeated by Mammon.

Antinoös: one of the lovers of Penelope.

Antiochus III: (or Antiochus the Great) King of Syria (223–187 BC); brother of Seleucus IV Philopator. Defeated by Acilius Glabrio in 191 BC near the Thermopylai and at sea near Myonnesos by L. Cornelius Scipio. After his overthrow at Magnesia, he was forced to make peace, known as: the treaty of Apamea [188 BC].

Antiochus IV Epiphanes: (or Mitrades the glorious) king of the Hellenistic Seleucids (215-163 BC).

Antipatros: (397 – 314) general of Philippe II of Macedon. Lord of Greece and Macedonia during absence of Alexander the Great.

Antonianus I: (or radiate, or double denarius) introduced in early 215 AD by merciless Caracalla, initially in silver (c 5, at that time 1.5*the weight of a denarius) but it was slowly debased by adding bronze or orichalcum till there wasn’t, in late 3^rd century AD, virtually any silver left (…II). From this time many contemporary forgeries exist, causing price inflation. Slightly larger than a denarius, but clearly recognizable by the radiated crown.

Antonianus II: the monetary reform of Aurelian in the last quarter of the 3^rd century AD, led to further debasement of the antonianus, now to a silver content or 5%. This was marked by XXI (20 to the denarius).

Antony, Mark: a Roman politician and general (c 82-30 BC). He was the chief rival of Octavian for the succession to the power of Julius Caesar. Was married first to Octavia (Octavian’s sister) and to Cleopatra. He committed suicide in 30 BC following his military defeat at Actium.

Anubis: Egyptian god, and sun of Ra. His worldly appearance is as the jackal.

Apameia I: a city in Phrygia located on the river Meander, and an important road junction. It was founded by Antiochos I and named after the kings mother.

Apameia II: (or Mysleia) a settlement of Kolophon. Prusias I of Bithynia renamed it in honor of his wife.

Aphrodite: goddess of love, and beauty. Daughter of Zeus and Dióne. Wife of Hephaistos, lover of Ares and Adonis. Her sons are Eros, Himeros and Hymenaios. Her main temples were at Kypros, Knidos, Kythera, especially long the costal-cities. Her attributes were: flowers and beauty-dispensary. Meanwhile dove, hare, dolphin, rose, poppy, myrtle, and apple were also dedicated to her. Most known statue: the Venus of Milo.

Apis: holy bull of the ancient Egyptians. His temple was in Memphis.

Apollo I: the sun-god. Son of Zeus and Leto, born in Delos. Twin brother of Artemis. Protector of the art, and leader of the Muse. The main Apollo temples were in Delphi and on the Delos. His attributes consisted of bow, arrows, quiver, cither, tripod, laurel-branch, and palm.

Apollo II: the slayer of the Pytho (or Pythia) at Delphi; alternatively a recent addition to the Greek pantheon coming from Lydia. This is the reason why the Etruscans, coming from Anatolia worshipped him

Apollo Airorpoiracos: (means saving from evil) an epithet referring to Apollo as the saver from all evils.

Apollo Clarius: Apollo worshipped at Clarus, near Kolophon. But he was also worshipped elsewhere.

Apollo Didymaion: (means the twin) an epithet referring to Apollo as the twin brother of Artemis; to the twinsanctuary of Apollo next to Delphi.

Apollo Kitharoides: this is Appolo as the patron god of music.

Apollo Oulios: (means the healer) an epithet referring now to Apollo the god who heals.

Apollo Smintheus: (means the mouse killer) an epithet referring to Apollo as the god who drives away the mice from the corn, which was a primary cause of disease, hence Apollo promotes preventive medicine.

Apollo Tyrimnaeos: this is Apollo as the protector of Thyatira in Lydia.

Apollo Xuaia: (means the purifier) an epithet referring now to Apollo as the god who purifies.

Apostrophaic: to serve as a protection against evil.

Ara: (or altar) a structure, elevated above the ground, at the former of which prayers, with libations, were offered up, and to the gods. Alternatively a tripod or tripus was used.

Arachne: Lydian girl who defeats the goddess Athena in a weaving competition. Athena destroyed Arachne’s weft so that she would commit suicide. Once done, Athena transformed the girl in a spider (Ovid 6, 5-145).

Ares: this is the Greek god of war. He was the son of Zeus and Hera.

Archaic Period: (800-500 BC) The word Archaic refers to an era where information about ancient societies mainly resulted from excavations. The epoch is based on the occurrence of city-states (800-500 BC). In Greek sculpture & vase painting the era is defined slightly dissimilar linking 660-480 BC. That is also an age where sculpture emerged as the most important form of artistic expression, and where vase painters started to depict mythical scenes (± 750) and scenes from daily life (± 500); where black-figured vase painting was invented, and where three-dimensional styling was introduced in relief, coins and vase painting (± 480).

Archaising: imitating an earlier style than the Archaic one [one of the Greek Dark Ages; Iron or Bronze age].

Archeloös: this was a River-god. Metapontum in Lucania, held games in his honour.

Archimedes: (287 – 212 BC) mathematician from Syracuse. Pupil of Eukleidos. Inventor of the pulley, and a. o. discoverer of the ratio between circumference of a circle and its diameter.

Architrave: the lowest of the 3 main parts of an entablature; the undecorated lintel resting on the column.

Archon: an ancient, democratically elected, leader of the government of a city-state.

Ares: god of the war, sun of Zeus and Hera. Father of the Amazons.

Argenteus: (plural argentei) a Roman silver coin introduced during the Diocletian reform in 294-310 AD equal in weight and pureness to the Neronian denarius. Its theoretic value 1s 1/96^th to the Roman pound, or 3g. It was indicated by the Roman numeral XCVI on the reverse side.

Argenteus-siliqua: (or siliqua) a Roman silver coin of about the same weight and fineness as the reformed Neronian denarius. It was introduced during the Diocletian reform in 294 AD.

Argonautika: a four-volume epic of the adventures of Jason and the Argonauts, written by Apollonius Rhodes in the 3^rd century BC.

Argentarii: these were the Roman money-changers, a class of small business men that arose in response in response to a need when commerce with the colonies brought many foreign coins to ancient Rome.

Argo: on the foot of Mount Pelios on the eastern coast of the Greek mainland, Jason had built a ship, called Argo (after –Argus, the man inspired by Athena who constructed it), in which he and the Argonauts sailed on their quest for the Golden Fleece [Histories, book 4, # 179; Iliad, book 2, line 757 and book 16, line 144].

Argolid: this is the surrounding region of Argos in the north-eastern Peloponnese.

Argonauts: the collective name for the most celebrated band of heroes ever assembled in ancient Greece.

Argos I: loyal dog of Odysseus (Hom. P 300-327); son of Zeus and Niobe and eponymous founder of Argos.

Argos II: (adj. Argive) an ancient Neolithic settlement, a city-state in the near to Mycenae in north-eastern Peloponnese, to the Romans Argeia.

Argurion: (Greek for silver) this is an ancient Greek term for money in the cense of silver as a barter good.

Aristaios: ancient Greek god of the lands. Protector of agriculture, herds, chase ,and apiculture.

Aristíppos: (of Kyréne) [±435 – 360 BC] Philosopher. His doctrine claims that pleasure is the highest good as long as it doesn’t dominate your existence.

Aristotle: (of Stageira) [384 – 322 BC] Philosopher. Pupil of Plato, educator of Alexander the Great, founder of a school in the lobby of the Lykeion [Peripatetic school]. He thrived at elaborate knowledge, based on close observations, for it is his opinion that philosophy is the examination of the prime causes of existence.

Artaba I: (or simid) Persian measurement of weight (of dry capacity) used as a corn-measure in the ancient Mediterranean basin. According to Herodotus (histories 1.192) it equals more than an Attic medimnus by three Attic choenixes. So: 1 artabas = 1 medimnus + 3 Attic choenices. C 29,160g or c.c. (or 60 minai).

Artaba II: the Egyptian old artaba equal to 4.5 Roman modii (72 sextarii) or nearly 9 gallons (37.56 litre). It was as much as the Attic metretes and ½ the Ptolemaic medimnus which 3:2 to the Attic medimnus.

Artaba III: this is the more common Greco-Roman Egiptian artaba of 3.33 Roman modii (53.33 sextarii) or c 6.5 gallons (27.13 litres). It is almost exactly half the original Persian Artaba equal to an Olympic cubic foot.

Artemis I: Greek goddess of fertility and hunting. Daughter of Zeus and Leto. Twin sister of Apollo, and in many ways the image of her twin brother too. She also punished those that breached the law and killed with her arrows. This ancient goddess of fertility, however, self remained inaccessible for love. Stayed a divine virgin, and so became protector of chastity. In Ephesus she is considered one and the same as Kybele.

Artemis II: a derivative from the Greek word “artemes”, which means untouched or unspoiled.

Artemis Anaitis: an honourable epithet which refers to the qualities of the Lydian goddess Anaitis.

Artemis ayorEpa: an epithet referring to Artemis as the goddess of the roaming winds.

Artemis Eurynome: an honourable epithet referring to Artemis as the goddess who is half woman and half fish, worshiped at Phigalia in Arcadia.

Artemis µEpacia: (means the tamer) an epithet referring to Artemis as the “gentle” goddess of healing.

Artemis Hecaerge: (or Opis) an honourable epithet referring to Artemis as the goddess (like her brother Apollo –Hecaergos) who does not only deals with death, but heals and purifies too.

Artemis Kapvarts: an epithet referring to Artemis as the goddess of the nut-tree, worshiped at Caryae.

Artemis KespeEins: an epithet referring to Artemis as the cedar goddess, worshiped at Orchomenos.

Artemis Laphria: an epithet referring to Artemis as the goddess of the spoils, at whose festivals all kinds of animals, both wild and tame, as well as fruits, were throne on a huge wood fire.

Artemis Leucophryne: (or Leucophrys) an epithet referring to Artemis as the goddess from the city of Leucophrys, in Phrygia, where, as well as at Magnesia ad Meandrum, she had a magnificent temple.

Artemis Munychia: this is the Artemis who was worshipped at Munychia, one of the harbors of the Pinaeus. She was quite popular an worshipped in many cities in Ionia.

Artemis Taurica: (or Tauropolos) an epithet referring to Artemis a protectress of bulls, respected at Samos.

Artemis temple: an ancient temple dedicated to the fertility goddess Artemis of Ephesos. It was one of the seven wonders of the ancient world [127 sculptured columns; 36 at the entrance. 125 meters in length, 60 meters width, and 25 meters high], reconstructed in 356 BC [105 x 55 x 25 meter high, and over 6,000 m].

Artemis oiAla: (means the healer) an epithet referring now to Artemis as the goddess who heals.

Artemis Pergaia: this is the Artemis from Perga, the patron goddess of Perge (in Pamphylia) founded by Artemidoros of Perge, home city of the ancient Hittites.

Artemis Sorocva: an epithet referring now to Artemis as the Lady of the lake.

Artemision: (or temple of Artemis) this is how the Artemis temple in Ephesos is called. The temple, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, is a very ancient place of worship (c 1,000 BC to 111 AD).

Arethusa: Artemis-Arethusa nymph of the freshwater spring on the island of Ortygia, the original site of Syracuse. In mythology the goddess was pursued by the river-god Alpheios in the Peloponnese, but passing under the sea she re-emerged as the nymph of the freshwater spring.

Arzawa: a region, or kingdom, in the southwest of Asia Minor, later known as Lydia.

As: oldest known Roman coin [cupper] equivalent of 12 unciae. Its original weight was 327 gram (as libralis, or aes grave). Its value quickly degraded during the second Punic war [denominations II]. It was marked I.

Aspendos: a ancient city on the north-eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea and on the shore of the river Eurymedon in Pamphylia (in present-day Turkey). An important harbour and naval base. It houses the best preserved ancient Roman theatre, built between 161-180 AD, with 17,500 seats and an excellent acoustic.

Assos: a city in Troas, situated on the coast, west of Antandros.

Assuwa League: a union of 22 states in western Asia Minor, who was defeated by the Hittites in c 1400 BC.

Athla: this corresponds to the twelve lots (or houses) of classical astrology. The earliest description of them is from Marcus Manilius’ Astronomica (c 10-20 AD). These lots correspond to 12 areas of life. The Greek called them Athla. Taken in order they are: fortune, warfare, employment, the law, marriage & friendship, wealth & plenty, dangers, status & honour, children, how life is lived (for good or ill), strength & health, and endings.

Attalids: this was the name of a Hellenistic dynasty who ruled Pergamon between 283-129 BC.

Asterion: this is one of the sacred kings of Crete. His son, Anax, was the mythic ruler of the stars.

Asia Minor: a peninsula in Western Asia between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, including most of modern Asiatic Turkey.

Asklepios: a son of Apollo who was raised by the centaur, Chiron, and became a great healer.

Aspic: Homeric shield covering the flanks of the bearer.

Astarte I: Lyric-Phoenician goddess, equalled to the Greek goddess Aphrodite.

Astarte II: Phoenician protesting goddess of the sea and of trade.

Asterion I: one of the sacret kings of Crete. He was the mythic ruler of the stars.

Asterion II: son of Neleus and Chloris, by the Greeks called the king of Crete, his mitic son was a giant.

Astragalos: an ancient Babylonian weight related the mina from the lion of Dur-Sharrukin or 502.525g.

Astraia: daughter of Zeus and Themis. Goddess of justness. Lived on earth during the Greek Golden age.

Assyrian weight standard (heavy): 1 talent = 943,920.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 15,732.0 grains, or 3,600 shekel = 262.2 grains.

Assyrian weight standard (light): 1 talent = 471,960.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 7,866.0 grains, or 3,600 shekel = 131.1 grains.

Atarneus: a city in Mysia, founded by Chios and located on the coast.

Atef crown: a mitre-like crown flanked by ostrich plumes and surmounted by a solar disk, which represents the union of powers. It was commonly worn by Osiris, lord of the underworld.

Aten: an ancient Egyptian sun god.

Atlantis: the fictional kingdom described by Plato in two of his dialogues, Timaeus and Critias.

Atrium: in Greek peristylium. The central reception hall of a Roman villa. Here the pater familias received his family and friends. This room knew several styles: 1) wit an impluvium or inner yard, atrium tuscanicum.

Atrium Vestae: is the Hal of the temple of Vesta, erected east of the Forum Romanum, close to the Sacra.2) with Corinthian pillars, atrium corinthicum; 3) wit four columns, atrium tetrastylium; 4) with an inner sloped roof, atrium displuviatum; and 5) with the form of a turtle, atrium testudinatum.

Attalia: (present-day Antalya) the Anatolian city is founded by Attalus II, in 150 BC, to base his great fleet.

Attalids: a group of rulers belonging to the Hellenic dynasty who ruled Pergamon between 283 and 129 AD.

Attic-Euboic standard: (or attic standard) this is the standard of the extensive imperial coinage of Alexander the Great, as well as for a few later large-denomination strikings.

Attic gold standard: an Attic rate of gold powder to silver based on the Euboic gold standard which, according to Herodotos (in III, 149) is brought to 1:13. In Persian coinage gold is converted to silver as to 1:12.44. In Athens it boiled down to 70 silver drachmae of 4.32g made 6 gold coins of 4.05g (24.3:302.4).

Attic standard I: this is one of the main monetary standards in the classical period based on the Phedonian weight standard. Others were: the Aeginetan, Euboiic, and Corinthian. Under the Attic coinage standard there existed a silver petadrachm (… drachm), decadrachm (10 drachm), tetradrachm (4 drachm) equalling c 17.2g, didrachm (2 drachm), drachm c 4.32g (Aelianus, 70 to the mina), triobols (half drachm), diobol (1/3^rd drachm), obol (1/6^th drachm) and other subdenominations of the obol like the hemiobol (1/12^th drachm).

Attica: geographical region around the city-state of Athens, in the south-east of Greece.

Augustus: (or Octavian) adopted son of Julius Caesar. Octavian became the first emperor of Rome.

Aurora: Greek goddess of the dawning morning. She gave birth to the morning star and the winds (Zephyrus, Boreas, Notos, and Euros) by Astraeos, the god of starlight.

Aureus: a gold coin of the Romans [plural: aurei].

Aurignacian period: (or era of the Upper Palaeolithic stone tool tradition) this era extended from 40,000 tot 28,000 BP, and is considered associated with the Homo Sapiens and Neanderthals in Europe and Africa.

Aurum coronarium I: this was the very fine and brilliant gold of which crowns were made, or rather the precious metal itself, which was offered to the Roman emperor at his coronation.

Aurum Coronarium II: a perquisite for successful Roman generals under the Republic; un the Empire, it was still attached to military triumphs, but was also used to celebrate a happy imperial occasion such as the accession to the throne or the adoption of a son as heir to the royal plush. In times of uproar in ancient times, crowns of the purest gold were given to bordering rulers, to ‘buy’ their friendship in times of political unrest.  When Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont and marched into Asia Minor, he got one from Rome.

Axen: this is an ancient barter kind, which appears on Egyptian monuments, a copper ingot comparable to a tin ingot of 79kg. It is rectangular shaped with rounded edges and at all ends a little curbed for easy handling (carrying on shoulders). According to Sir Arthur Evans, the axen on the palace tablet of Knossos represent most likely the Minoan Crete gold standard amounting to 60 ingots of bronze equal 52.5 small gold talents.

Axumite Civilization: a Coptic pre-Christian state in Ethiopia, from about 100-800 AD.

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B.C.: (or BCE) year Before Christ [contrast: A.D. or CE, anno domini].

B.C.E.: (or BC) year Before the Common Era.

B.P.: (or yBP) year before the present. This in fact avoids the philosophical debate about BC-AD versus BCE-CE. Since the BP designation is associated with radiocarbon dating, though this way of dating was invented in the late 1940s when atmospheric nuclear testing began, archaeologists chose the year 1950 as “the present”.

Baäl: this is the Syrian equivalent of the Greek Zeus.

Ba bird: a human headed falcon representing the human soul in Egyptian myths.

Baerer: or third part of the capital of the Dorian order. It consisted of a square piece with square edges, and was destined for the reception of the main beam or architrave resting on the column.

Babylonian capacity: 1 archane = 128,995.793 inches³, equals 6 homer of 21,599.298 cubic inches, or 36 artaba =3,583.216 cubic inches, or 216 sutu = 597.202 cubic inches, or 2,160 qa = 59,720 cubic inches.

Babylonian Duck-weights: (or weights at Nuzi) these are stone weights of Babylonian shekels, minas and talents. A mina equals about 60 shekels, and 60 minas equaled a talent.

Babylonian gold standard: 1 talent = 377,568 grains, equals 60 mina = 6,292.8 grains, or 3,000 shekel = 125.856 grains; corrected: 1 talent = 378,000 grs., equals 60 mina = 6,300 grs., or 3,000 shekel = 126 grs.

Balylonian Royal standard I: (or Sumerian-Babylonian standard) the royal heavy or double standard is an ancient weight standard in which 1 talent = 60 mina or 133.5lbs; 1talent 933,120 grains, equals 60 minas at 15,552 grains, or 3,600 shekels at 259.2 grains each. However according to ancient Sumerian text there was also a talent of 61.667 mina, or equal to 61 2/3^rd mina. This one then was c 137.2lbs. And there was another talent, from 770 BC, which indicated “the just one” of 30 true mina, weighing 33.303lbs.

Balylonian Royal standard II: (or Sumerian-Babylonian standard) in the royal light or single standard 1talent has 466,560 grains, equals 60 minas at 7,776 grains, or 3,600 shekels at 259.2 grains each.

Babylonian weight standard I: (heavy or double standard) 1 talent 907,200 grains, equals: 60 mina at 15,120 grains, or 3,600 shekels at 129.6 grains each.

Babylonian weight standard II: (light or single standard) 1 talent 453,600 grains, equals: 60 mina at 7,560 grains, or 3,600 shekels at 126 grains each.

Bacchic: Roman term for Dionysiac, relating to Dionysos and his followers and their practices; orgiastic; in drunken revelry.

Bacchus: (or Liber) the son of Jupiter, by Semale, the daughter of Cadmus, and brought up by the daughters of Atlas (Ovid in Metamorphoses). He had later Selinus for his protector. At length he became a celebrate warrior fighting for Jupiter against the Titans, and made the conquests of India. On his return he is related to have found Ariadne in the island of Naxos. Bacchus, Dionysios for the Greek is linked as the god of wine.

Bactria: an ancient kingdom in present-day northern Afghanistan, created when its Seleucid governor, Diodotos (1^st king of Bactria), declared independence in about 250 BC but overthrown by nomads in c 140 BC.

Bail amphora: a South Italian vase with a single loop handle cross the mouth.

Baldric: a belt used to support a weapon, worn over the shoulder and diagonally across the chest.

Banausic work: (or capitalism) Ancient Greek values held economic activities in low esteem that were not subordinated to managing the family farm and obtaining goods for necessary consumption. When the work was not tied to the land and family farm and included manufacturing, business, and trade, it was banausic.

Band cup: a form of black-figured Little-Master cup with a central band reserved in the natural (so red) colour of the fired clay.

Bank-marks: (or shop-marks) a counter-market coin as a control mark made by a banker or money trader.

Bare head: (or naked head) it describes that the Roman prince is not laurelled nor radiated on his coinage.

Bargylia: an ancient city in Caria, located on the southern shore of the Iasic Gulf. It is said to have been named after Bellerophon’s companion who was killed by a kick from Pegasos.

Barly cubit: an ancient measure of length equal to …. inch.

Bas relief: a engraved design on any type of material [contrast: relief].

Bekah: an ancient measurement of weight equalling half a shekel or 5.75g.

Bellerophon: (or Bellerophont) a Greek mythic hero. The greatest hero and slayer of monsters, alongside of Kadmos and Perseus, before the days of Herakles; grandson of king Glaucus of Corinth (Iliad vi 155-203).

Bellona: the Roman goddess of war.

Belly amphora: on this amphora the neck meets the body in a single curve.

Bes I: a coin from the Roman order, valuing eight unciae.

Bes II: the protector of pregnant women, newborn babies and the family. The ancient Egyptians also believed that Bes protected them against snake and scorpion bites.

Beqa coding system: this is both an ancient Greek and Roman measurement system. Under the Greek bequa system, or tridrachm, 1 talent = 589,950 grains, equals 60 mina at 9,832.5 grains, or 3,000 tridrachm at 196.65 grains. Under the Roman beqa system it differed. Here 1 libra = 4,719.6 grains, equals 12 uncia at 393.3 grains, or 24 semuncia at 196.65 grains.

Biga: a chariot drawn by two horses [fast biga: .. drawn by two galloping horses][plural: bigae].

Bigae or bigati: in the Roman military for one denarius was always given 10 Asses. Such a sliver coin had either a biga or a quadriga on its reverse side, and were thereafter called bigati and quadrigati.

Billon: a 50:50, silver-copper alloy.

Birytis: the city’s location is still unknown. Numismatists know about the city’s existence only from its coins.

Bithynia: a country in Anatolia, bordering the Black Sea, as well as Paphlagonia, Galatia, Phrygia and Mysia.

Black-figure vase painting: in this technique, originating from Athens, but later adopted in Southern Italy (magna Graecia), the background is filled in with black paint and only the figure’s details are painted which allowed the unpainted portions of the figures to take on the reddish tone of Attic clay after it was burned in the presence of oxygen.

Blue crown: (or war crown) an Egyptian crown worn by pharaohs.

Bodo Cranium: a nearly complete hominid skull recovered from a site in the Middle Awash region of Ethiopia.

Boeotian League: a military union, created in c 600 BC, between eleven major Boeotian cities (Orchomenos excluded). After the defeat of Athens at the Battle of Koroneia in 447 BC, the league was dissolved.

Boione: a city in Aiolis. Its exact location is still unknown.

Bona damnatorum: the condemnation of the rich for treason or social dereliction in Roman times. As damnation had become an easy and a cherished way to find money for the public treasure by extortion of the rich, the State offered substantial rewards for successful accusers.

Bona Dea: or Good Goddess. The Roman Earth goddess of Fertility, worshiped only by women. When their rites took place, even statues of men were covered.

Bosporos: (or Bosphoris) this is present-day Istanbul Strait. The boundary between the European part of Turkey and the Asian part. It is the world’s smalles strait, connecting the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara.

Boulè: (or counsel) an advisory institution, created by the 1^st Greek kings, consiting of several poleis. After Solon’s era it consisted of 400 members, 100 from each 4 tribes (Geleontes, Hopletes, Argadeis, Aigikoreis).

Bouleuterion: (or meeting hall) at first the conference room of the Boulè, an Attic institution situated in the city’s agora. It had two rooms: a sanctuary of Zeus Bouleios and Athena Bouleia, gods of good advise, and the actual meeting hall. The later was devided in two parts: one for the counsellors, the other for the public.

Branchidae I: thes were the descendants of Apollo’s son Branchus.

Branchidae II: these were the priests of the Didymaion, the famed oracle of Apollo at Didyma, designed to capture the origins of Didyma as a Hellenic tradition .

Branwen: a Celtic goddess of love and beauty. She is the sister of Bran the Blessed and Manannan mac Lir, daughter of Lir, and wife of the Irish king Matholwch. She died of a broken heart after Bran’s death.

Bronze Age: this refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking consists of casting bronze. The period is divided in EBA (early, 3500-2000 BC) began maybe in Iran and Iraq, MBA (middle 2000-1600 BC) and LBA, or late bronze age (1600-1200 BC). Metallurgy comes from Anatolia.

Bucranium: the skull of an ox.

Bullion: un-coined metal, usually gold or silver, in the shape of bars or iglots.

Buto: she is the chief Egyptian goddess of the Delta. She is associated with the snake.

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C.E.: (or AD) abbreviation, meaning the Christian era.

Caduceus I: (or caduceum) a wand or rod entwisted at one end by two serpents, each of whose bodies fold again in the form of two half circles, whilst the head passes above the wand. This is the attribute of Mercury.

Caduceus II: in older myths the rod, which was of young Apollo who had killed the Pytho (or Pythia) for its attempted rap of Leto (his mother) and Artemis (his twin sister), the bodies of whom were draped around his rod, which, with the wings of Artemis (Nike) reated the caduceus symbolic of the gods.

Caesar: he was a member of the Julia dynasty; as a title of an acting Roman emperor; as a title for the next (crown) prince; as a member of the imperial family; and as a ancient north African term, meaning elephant.

Calends: (or Kalendae) a term derived from the word calendar. This is the first day of the month of the ancient calendar, thought to have been the first day of the new moon. Interest on debt was due on calends.

Caligae: those were sandals in use with the Roman military. These were made with heavy soles (caliga).

Calinipaxa: great ancient city not far away from Rhodapha in the Hesudrus, the Mauryan Empire (Pliny t E).

Caliphate: an Islamic form of government representing the political unity and leadership of the Muslim world.

Cape Mycale: was in 479 BC the site of a naval victory of the Greek over the Persians, which market the end of the 1^st phase of a series of Greco-Persian Wars (this was after the victories at Salamis and Plataea).

Capital: the head or crowning feature of a column or pilaster.

Caria: a contry in Asia Minor, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, as well as Lycia, Phrygia, Lydia and Ionia.

Carian Islands: a group of islands off the coast of Caria, facing tha ancient Greek-Ionian city of Miletos.

Caryatid (or Karyatid): a supporting column in the form of a kore, an archaic figure of a draped female.

Cartouche: an elongated ring containing the names of the pharaoh. It had apostrophic power.

Cash coins: a type of cast coin, usually of a circular copper-alloy, with a square whole e.g. Chinese coins, or without a hole like with Roman cast coins.

Caunus: (or Kaunos) an important city in Caria, founded by Crete. It is famous for its figs.

Cecropia I: (or Acropolis) a name is given to the rock after its 1^st king, Cecrops I (1556–1506 BC) and mythic founder of Athens.

Cecropia II: (or Attica) although Actaeus is the eponymous founder of Attica (or Acte), it is named Cecropia after the first king of Athens, his son-in-law, Cecrops.

Cecropidae: (or erechthids) a group of 17 Athenian kings (2^nd half of 1^st millennium BC). Kodros was last.

Cecrops: he is a mythical king of Athens who was half man and half snake (the sacred animal of Erechtheus).

Cecrops II: he was the son of Erechtheus the first, early king of Athens.

Celeres: cavalry of 300 men in Roman regal times, headed by a tribuni celerum.

Cella: (or portico) the central part of the temple, there where the statue of the deity was housed.

Celtic torque: this is an ancient gold weight of 480g, which converts fluidly to 16.875 ounces. Its fabricated and coded weight is in direct ratio to both the Greek (trade) talent or tridrachm (Beqa) gold standard talent and it represents 1/180^th of the talent weight in both standards. It depicts a rising and setting orb of either sun or moon, and shows a Greek Pegasus at each ends.

Censor: a magistrate qualified to hold census. His major tasks were: writing the public tenders, known as opera; holding the public survey, known as census; establishing and impose taxes, known as locare; and taking care of the public morality, which was known as the regimen morum. Obsolete in c mid 3^rd century AD.

Centaur I: (plural centauri) these were the original inhabitants of Thessaly, famous for their great courage and ddress, in taming and training horses.

Centaur II: (horse-men) a mythic creature half man half horse; in ancient Greek art they are represented with the upper part of a human and the body with the lower extremities of a horse.

Centauromachy: a scene involving a battle between Centaurs and the gods.

Centenionalis: (or Æ 3) a Roman billon coin, weighing little over 3g, introduced by Constantine II in c 318 AD, when his mint was under western control.

Centumviri: that is the Roman legal college, an institution created in the middle of the 2^nd century BC.

Centurio: vice officer of the Roman legion. He had the command of one of the 60 centurii.

Centuria: a group of Roman military, consisting of originally one hundred men –hence the name, but later of a set of 80 men, headed by a centurion [plural: centuriae].

Census: (or census populi) a public survey amongst all Romans with the objective to know its composition.

Cerealia: a festival, held on April 19^th in honour of Ceres, Roman goddess of fruitfulness of the earth.

Ceress: the Roman goddess of agriculture. She appears in the 1^st and 2^nd century AD often as a coin type and is usually shown holding ears of corn (show fruitfulness). To the Greek: Demeter, mother of Proserpina.

Chabakta: this is an ancient city in Pontos.

Chalkedon: (or Chalcedon) an ancient maritime city founded by Megarian settlers in the 7^th century BC, located in Bithynia.

Chalkoi: (or dichalkon) an ancient Greek denomination valuing a 12^th part of a litra.

Chalcon: ancient Greek bronze coins as token currency, originating from mid 5^th century BC Sicily.

Chalkos: biblical term for money in Mt 10:9, Mk 6:8 and 12:41; a small coin of Herod Agrippa II (55-95 AD); it means bronze, brass or copper and may refer in general to every thing made of metal; brass instrument.

Chalkos II: a small Greek bronze coin of 1/8th obol or 1/48^th drachm (c 125mg); a small bronze Parthian coin (0.8-1.8g; 10-13mm).

Chalkos III: a Roman measure of mass of 71mg; the Greek chalkos or kuprios means metal from Cyprus.

Châtelperronian period: a name given to the Upper Paleolithic Neanderthal stone tool assemblage, from about 32,000 to 30,000 BC. These tools were generally made from stone flakes, thin, sharp pieces of flint.

Chios I: an important island in the Mediterranean Sea, off the coast of Ionia. It started to coin in the middle of the 6^th century BC on nuggets of electron.

Chios II: the capital (c 2000 BC) of the island Chios. Coordinates: 38°24’N, 26° 01’E. Birthplace of Homer.

Chiton: a loose, short-sleeved, belted tunic, usually linen but sometimes wool, worn short by men, Amazons and children and long by women and charioteers.

Chlamys: (or currency) a short woollen cloak pinned on the left shoulder with a brooch, worn by young men, horsemen, warriors, and Amazons.

Christogram: (or PX sign) monogram of Christ. The P|X symbolize the Greek letters chi or C, and rho or R. Both make the first two letters of word Christ who is also represented by the symbol of a fish, from the Greek I-CH-TH-U-S –Iesous Christos Theou Usios Soter, or just Jesus Christ Son of God Saviour.

Choenices: (Attic choenices) is an ancient Persian measurement of 2 Roman sextarii or c 0.25 gallons.

Chora: (plural Chorai) the agricultural territory that surrounded and supported ancient Greek cities (poleis).

Cimerians: ancient equestrian nomads, originating from the Caucasus and the Black Sea region (Herodotus).

Cista(e): (or cista mystica) is a basket used for housing sacred snakes in connection with the initiation ceremony into the cult of Bacchus (Dionysus). In the Dionysian mysteries a serpent, representing the god, was carried in a box –cistae, on a bed of vine leaves. This may be the cista mentioned by Clement of Alexandria which was exhibited during the fertility festival as containing the phallus of Dionysus.

Cistophorus I: a coin from ancient Pergamum (modern Bergama, Turkey), undersized in weight and initiated in 175-160 BC at 4 drachms, as a surrogate coin of the tetradrachma of Philetairos. Seized to exist in 128 AD.

Cistophorus II: an ancient coin thus denominated, from the cistae, or mystical baskets, used in the worship of Bacchus, who was always found figured upon it. In its original sense the term cistophorus and cistophora were applied to him or her who, in the mysteries of Bacchus, or of Ceres and of Proserpine, carried the cista, which enclosed the sacred serpent. Amongst the Greeks it was the custom for young girls of high rank to bear this mystic chest at public festivals. The coins called cistophori were issued by authority in reference to the feasts of Bacchus, and became the peculiar symbol of Asia.

Cistophorus III: Roman coin, struck at Ephesus and Pergamum mint, equal in value to three denarii.

City-state: (poleis) or –kingdom, is defined as a independent sovereignty that controlled a limited amount of territory surrounding the city. These however could enormously differ in size. The city-state of Sparta e.g. controlled more than 3,000 square miles of surrounding territory, where as Stuella in east Sicily was rather undersized. By the end of the 9^th century BC, these city-states, or by its more common Greek name polis, became hugely popular. In fact with them started a new era known as the Archaic Period.

Cicvēs: (free-born citizens) these were the Roman plebeians and patricians (either nobilis or novus homo).

Civitas: (or citizenship) originally the free inhabitants of ancient Rome, in 212 Ad this was extended to all free inhabitants of the empire.

Cleopatra: (or Cleopatra VII Philopater 69-30 BC) co-ruler of Egypt with her father (Ptolemy XII Auletes) and later with her brothers/husbands, Ptolemy XIII & Ptolemy XIV. She later became the supreme ruler of ancient Egypt, consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne, with whom she produced a son Caesarion, and after Caesar’s death, aligned with Mark Antony, with whom she had twins.

Cliens: (plural clientes) this refers to the lesser co-worker in the ancient Roman social structure. The word is derived from the Latin cluere, meaning to obey or to hear.

Clientela: this was a Roman law, or social convention that linked Plebeians with the legal, and sometimes even economic protection of the Patrician families.

Clipeus: Roman shield, when rectangular it was called a scutum.

Cob coin: a medieval coin struck on a approximately cut, irregular flan, often too small to contain the entire die design (e.g. 16^th-18^th century AD Spanish or Latin American coins).

Codridae: these are the descendents of the last king of Athens, Codrus (or kodros) c 1044 BC.

Codex: (plural: codices) this is the technical name for an ancient book or manuscript.

Cognomen: (or surname) third name in the Roman civil name-system. Nomen or the name, and praenomen or forename, being the first two. Sulla, for example, was surnamed Felix; Julius Caesar: dictator perpetuum.

Cohors: (or cohort) a battalion of Roman foot soldiers.

Coin: an ancient coin is defined as a nugget of metal, known as ‘flan, [gold, electrum, silver, bronze, or copper] with a fixed weight and stamped by hand between two dies. First European coins are found below the basements of the temple of Artemis, near Ephesus, Asia Minor [± 650 BC].

Coloni: (or tenant farmers) a Roman farmer who resides on and farms land owned by a landlord

Colonia: a Roman outpost, often established by veterans of the Roman Legion, who received land as a part of their retirement from the military. In time the term evolved to denote the highest status of a Roman city.

Colosseum: (or Flavian amphitheatre) a huge (45,000-50,000 seats) amphitheatre in the center of ancient Rome, build between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian, but completed by his son Titus in 80 AD.

Column: a supporting pillar or shaft usually consisting of a bas, a cylindrical shaft and a capital.

Contorniate Coin: (or concorniate medal) from the Latin Concordia –ae, meaning on good terms with. These Roman coins demonstrated the harmony with the people and the goodness of the emperor in particular.

Congiarium I: (or congiary) derived from the Latin congius; a jar containing a measure of volume distributed to the Romans on certain occasions, equal to six sextarii or one congius.

Congiarium II: It designates a present given typically in cash, by a person of high rank, to the militar on the account of their smallness. August named it: a heminaria. At first this was done every five to ten years, then under Trajan and after him, every three years on average.

Congius: an ancient measure of liquid, usually oil or wine which was distributed to the Romans in Republican times on certain occasions. It equalled to six sextarii.

Consecration: the custom in ancient times of paying divine honours to individuals who had acquired renown from various circumstances

Consecration type: coins usually employed to indicate a Consecration.

Contorniate coin or medal: (or numi contorniati) a coin that actually exhibits, on the outer edge of both sides, a circular line deeply engraved.

Congiarium I: a gift made to the people by the emperor, and the presentation of which is often exhibited on Roman coins. These gifts were often given as a means of acquiring good-will of the people.

Congiarium II: (plural congiaria) usual amount are HS300, 400, or 600 sesterces equalling 3.5 to 6 aureii. In the era of 37-180 AD hand-outs could have been paid only in gold coin. When Marcus Aurelius returned in triumph to Rome in 177 AD, the Romans held up eight fingers showing that this time they wanted 8 aurei (Dio 71.32.1). But Marcus paid 200 Alexandrian tetradrachms instead (c …. aurei).

Consulatus: (or consulate) was the office of a consul. This highest of the Roman magistracies conferred, as is well known, upon him who held it, the possession of sovereign authority during his term of office, which was for only one year. The office was first established immediately after the abolition of royalty in 510 BC.

Corinthian style: the Corinthian column has its name the Greek Corinthians.

Cornice: a decorative moulded projection at the top of a wall, window, or roof construction; the upper part of an entablature.

Cornucopia: a curved horn of plenty, symbol of abundance and prosperity, often overflowing with fruits, etc.

Coronae: (plural of corona) crown on ancient coins are either, in reference to their attributes, ornaments of deities, or to decorate the heads of men in reward of their ascribed virtues. Were made of different materials.

Corona aurea: a golden crown was for the Greek and the Roman an extraordinary recompense of bravery. The privileged worn them in public places and at theatres. Don’t confound them with aurum coronarium.

Corona civica: (or corona querna or corona quercea) in Roman history, the civic crown was the greatest military honour for bravery and the most distinguished personal ornament. It was made of three kinds of oak.

Corona hederacea: (or ivy crown) the crown of ivy is a symbol of Bacchus.

Corona laurea: a laureate crown and the most ancient imperial head-dress (1^st used by Julius Caesar).

Corona laureate et rostrate: a crown composed of laurel and berries, interlaced with the prows and sterns of gallies, placed alternately.

Corona muralis: this is a mural crown which was made in the form of a wall with towers and curtains. Such a crown was given by Roman generals to him who was first to scale the ramparts of the enemy’s town. On roman coins these crowns style the heads of Genii and patron deities of cities. On Greek coins from Smyrna.

Corona navalis: this is a crown mural which was made in the form of a wall with towers and a pattern of prows and ship’s sterns on a mural crown which was given to him who was first to board an enemy’s vessel.

Corona quercea: (or corona civica) this civic crow was bestowed to Augustus by the Roman Senate during the calends of March in 27 BC.

Corona rostrata et muralis: (or rostra crown) a mural crown on Roman coins so named after the pattern of prows and ship’s sterns on a mural crown; a naval commander’s award for gaining a great naval victory.

Corona spicea: this is the head-dress of Ceres. A crown made by ears of corn , the token of Annona, produced for the public use by the Curele Aediles.

Corona triumphalis: a triumphal crown. There were two kinds: a laureate crown which was given by the army to its general (worn during the triumphal procession), and a crown presented by the defeated. As to the later, the Greek Appianus narrates that Caesar had carried before him 2,822 of these gold crowns in triumph.

Crook: an attribute of an pharaoh or Osiris, representing their power. The crook was once a shepherd’s staff.

Crown: (or Corona or Stephanos) was worn: in cults (worn by priests), in oracles (by the Sibyl, the crown who evokes true dreams), in feests (crowning the bull), in protection (against demons), in mysteries (the mystagogues bear myrtle crowns during the Eleusinian Mysteries), in political life (a Roman emperor; the Greek orations in Athens), in games (wreaths of laurel, olive, or ivy), in ceremony (army decoration), in joy (by the newly wedds), in symposia (by participants at banquets), and in cult of death (wreaths on the grave).

Crucis signum: this is the cross on a globe, frequently on coins of the lower Roman Empire. The globe was considered as a type of dominion over the world.

Ctesiphon: an ancient city at the confluence of the Tigris and Diyala rivers, near modern Baghdad, in Iraq.

Ctistes: honourable epithet of Mithridates I, meaning founder of the kingdom of Pontus in Anatolia.

Cubit: a unit of length in many kingdoms in the Mediterranean basin. In Egyptian hieroglyphic script: symbol of the forearm. It is equal to the distance from the peak of the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. In most lands 4 digits made a palm; five a cubit. 100 cubits = 1 schoinion, which was divided in 8 knots (hammata).

Cuirass: body armour consisting of a breastplate with back plate; it refers also to the breastplate alone.

Culina: the kitchen of a Roman villa, hestia to the Greek.

Cuneiform: one of the earliest forms of writing, invented in Uruk, Mesopotamia in c 3,000 BC.

Curia: one of the Roman religious associations with its own cult, priests (the curio), and political significance.

Curule aediles: (or cereal ediles, in Latin aedilescereales) a third class of aediles appointed for the purpose of assisting in the conveyance of corn from foreign lands to Rome, and the distribution of it to the populace; them was also entrusted the care of sacred edifices, the tribunals of justice, the city walls, and the theatres. The curule chair, which the Romans considered to be a symbol of fine descent, was a sign of knighthood.

Cybele: (or Artemis) a Phrygian deity, symbolizing Mother Earth, worshiped in Anatolia from Neolithic times. Much like the Greek Gaia (the Earth) or her Minoan equal Rhea, Cybele embodies the fertile earth, a goddess of caravans and mountains, walls and fortresses, nature, wild animals (lions in Lydia; bees in Ephesos).

Cybele II: a deity from Asia Minor (to the Greek Kybele). On Roman coins she is usually styled wearing a turreted crown, holding a tympanum. On other coins in a lions drawn chariot or enthroned amid the animals.

Cybele Didymene: (or Sipylene) meaning Cybele the twin. The Phrygian Earth Mother, worshiped in Anatolia from Neolithic times, is supposed to have been born on Mount Ida in Asia Minor, her “twin” on Mt. Dindymon.

Cycladic culture: this refers to the ancestral Greek culture of the Cyclades in the southern Aegean Sea.

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Daedalic: refers to the earliest examples of Greek sculpture, based on Near Eastern and Egyptian prototypes, c 7^th century BC.

Daktylos: (or one digit; plural daktyloi) is an ancient Greek measure of distance equal to 19.3mm.

Daneids: the fifty daughters of Danaus, who were forced to marry their fifty cousins. All but Hypermnestra killed them in the wedding night. As a result they had to keep filling the leaky water jars of the Underworld.

Dardanos: this is an Aiolian colony in Troas, located on the Hellespont.

Daric: (or Darkemonim) golden anchor coin of the ancient Persian monetary system.

Darkemonim: (or adharkonim) biblical term for the Daric as cited in Neh 7:70-72, 1 Ch 29:7 and Ezr 8:27. Phoenician inscriptions from Katharevousa (a city in the periphery of Attica, modern Piraeus) inform that the coins corresponds to the ancient Greek drachma.

Debasement: the practice of lowering the quality and value of currency in connection to its intrinsic metal value. The Roman State reduced more than once both purity and weight of its coins because of financial gain, for given the amount of metal it could now produce more coins (creation of money). This results in inflation.

Decennalia: (or 10^th anniversary) are an ancient Roman festivals celebrated with games and occasionally accompanied by a liberalitas. A nice example of this is the 3^rd congiarium paid in 202 AD by Septimius Severus, which was according to the historian writer Dio HS1,000 (standard was in those days about 600).

Decius: (or Caius Messius Quintus Trajanus) a Roman emperor (249-251 AD), born at Bubalia in Lower Pannonia (near modern Micowitz in Hungary) in 201 AD. He is best known from his policy of reforming the morals of his time by pinning his faith to older Roman paganism. His objective: the elimination of Christianity.

Decurion: a member of the city council in the Roman Empire, responsible for public contracts, religious rituals (worship rites), entertainment, and ensuring order. They also supervised local tax collection.

Decussis: a coin of the Roman type, valuing ten asses. It was marked with an X.

Dekadrachm: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 10 drachma.

Dekonkion: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 10 dichalkon.

Delian League: the peace treaty of Salamis (480 BC) between the Persians, Greek and Spartans, had led to a new association between the much impoverished Greek-Ionian city-states who now paid Athens in exchange for its naval protection. This resulted in the end in the Athenian supremacy.

Demareteia: the ancient Greek name, associated with Queen Demarete, wife of Gelon, for decadrachms.

Demareteion: a renown and early described (Diodorus of Sicily, in WH) decadrachm from 480 BC, by queen Demarette the wife of tyrant Gelon (487-478 BC). It may be commemorates the defeat of the Carthaginian attempt to dominate Sicily, at the battle of Himera in 480 BC, thus laying the foundation for Syracusan pre-eminence on the island. Modern scholars, however, place it to c 465 BC, which would then suggest that this coin was created in commemoration of another evens, possibly the expulsion of the tyrants in 465 BC.

Demareteion master coinage: this is the name, that has been given by present-day numismatics to an unknown artist who is believed to have executed the dies for the Demareteion itself and for the related series of tetradrachms from Syracuse and Leontinoi. He is believed to be the first of a series of master engravers. They took the numismatic art of the Greek archaic era into the full expression and beauty of the classical age.

Demeter: ancient Greek goddess of agriculture and the protector of marriages and social order, named Akhaia or Achaea by the Greeks from Attica (south-eastern Greece, lands around the city-state of Athens).

Denarius: a silver coin of the Romans [plural: denarii] worth 10 asses in 211 and 16 asses in 44 BC. It was the basic denomination –if not the backbone, of the Roman currency system. Introduced in 211 BC as a small silver coin (6.5g; 6.0g in 44 BC) to pay the military, is grew out to become the most common coin produced for circulation, but was slowly debased both in weight and purity, until finally replaced by the antonianus.

Dentil: a small rectangular block used in a series forming a moulding under the cornice.

Deromenid rulers of Sicily: the son of Deromenes was Gelon. He founded in 5^th century BC Sicily a dynasty of tyrannical rulers [Gelon, Hieron I, and Thrasybulus] (Syracuse was democracy as from 465-405 BC).

Deshret: (or red crown) representing the royal power of lower Egypt.

Deunx: a coin of the Roman order, valuing eleven unciae.

Deus Sol Invictus: this was the major diety since the Roman emperor Aurelianus, but lost ever since.

Dextans: a coin from the Roman order, valuing nine unciae.

Diadem: a crown, headband or headdress worn by deities and royalty.

Diarbekir: (or Diyarbakir) the land of the Bekr’ bordering Roman Syria in south-eastern Anatolia. Arabian tribe (the Rabi’ah branch of the Adnanite tribe) reputed from the War of Basous (a 40-year war before Islam).

Dichalkon: (or chalkoi) an ancient Greek denomination valuing a 12^th part of a litra.

Dictotor: a magistrate with the full power to rule over Rome in times of crises. He is nominated for a limited period, usually 6 months, by appointment from the Roman senate, to fulfil a predetermined task. In most of the cases such an officer was nominated in times of war.

Dictator Iterum: (or DIC ITER) meaning “dictator” for the second time.

Didrachm I: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 2 drachma.

Didrachm II: (or half quadrigatus) an ancient Roman silver coin issued soon after 280 BC to trade with city-states in the south of Italy. It closely resembled the coinage of the cities in Magna Graecia. 215-213 BC.

Didyma: ancient city of present-day Didim, Turky, in ancient Ionia at the coast in the proximity of Meletos.

Didymaion: this is how the ancients called the sanctuary and the oracle of Apollo near Miletos, at Didyma in ancient Ionia. Next to Delphi, the oracle at Didyma was the most renowned oracle of the Hellenic world. Its prophesying priestess was seated on a wheel-shaped disc, after she had bathed the hem of her robe and her feet in a spring, and had breathed the steam arising from it.

Die: tool used for coin striking. There were two of them: the punch or beat die and the anvil die [the die face is engraved].

Die Alignment: die alignment is expressed in hourly degrees and describes how the obverse/reverse dies were aligned to each other when the coin was struck. Together with the weight this is a basic identification.

Digesta: this is the Roman Corpus iurus civillis, the Roman civil law.

Digit: (or daktylos, plural daktyloi) an ancient Greek measure of distant equal to 19.3mm. 2 digits = 1 condylos; 4 digits = 1 palaiste; 8 digits = 1 dichas; 12 digits = 1 spithame; 16 digits = 1 pous (or foot; plural podes) equal to 309mm (Ionic foot = 296mm, Doric foot 326mm); 20 digits = 1 pygon (remen to Egyptians); 24 digits = 1 pechya (or pechys, small cubit); 40 digits = 1 bema; and 72 digits = 1 xylon or 4.5 feet.

Dilitron: twice a litra coin.

Dinar: an Islamic gold coin, first struck in Syria under Abdal-Malik in 696-7 AD (AH 77); principal Islamic gold coin. The term is occasional used for a silver coin.

Diobol: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 2 obol.

Dionysiac: Greek term relating to Dionysos and his followers and their practices; orgiastic; in drunken revelry.

Dionysos I: the son of Zeus by Semele, princess of Thebes. As an infant given in the care of Hermes, to protect the boy from the jealous Hera.

Dionysos II: (or Bachus) the god of wine and of vegetation in general. Associated with orgiastic rites in celebration of the earth’s fertility, and with both death and rebirth.

Dioptra: an ancient divice employed in navigation, using triangulation, to determine the direction.

Dioskuri: (Dioscuri in Latin) the joined name for the twin brothers Kastor and Pullux or Polydeuces. In the Iliad (book 3, line 243) they were just mortals, but later tales gave them supernatural powers [Argonautika].

Distater: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 2 stater.

Djet pillar: an Egyptian hieroglyph, representing stability and endurance; alternatively, regenerative power and eternal strength too. It was originally associated with Ptah, then with Osiris, representing his backbone.

Dodekadrachm: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 12 drachma.

Donatio clavarium: an imperial largess consisting of bronze nails (meant as money) for the Roman military.

Donativum I: a gift in cash bestowed to the Roman military. In Republican times it is given when a veteran left his service to take his pension. In Imperial times it was given when the emperor ascended his throne.

Donativum II: (plural donativa) a hand-out in cash given in gratitude for favours or as a bribe for loyalty.

Donativum III: emphasised in Augustus’s Res Gestae, these hand-outs for the plebs typically were HS260.

Doryphoros: the spear-bearer; the ideal athlete of which the prototype was sculptured by Polykleitos.

Dorians: one of the 3 Greek ethno-linguistic groups, jointly named the Hellenes, who occupied early Greece.

Doric chiton: a long woollen tunic, worn by women, fastened on both shoulders, often with one side open, with a folded edge falling almost down to the waist; more often known as a peplos.

Doric style: the Doric column has its name from the Greek tribe the Dorians. It consisted of a long secular concave shaft, generally made out of a certain number of drums. The shaft was broken by parallel indentures, called flutings with sharp edges. The pillar was divided in two parts: a shaft and capital. The shaft consists of a stem of round form, which up to a third of its height faintly increases in circumference, and decreases again more or less toward the top. The capital of the Doric order consists of three parts: a neck which headed the shaft,  a ledge, and a square top.

Double denarius: (or antoninianus)

Double litrae: (or …..) an ancient Roman silver coin issued soon after 280 BC to trade with the Greek city-states in the south of Italy. It closely resembled the coinage of the cities in Magna Graecia.

Double sestertius: Roman coin initiated into his aes coinage by the Gallic usurper Postimus (260-268 AD).

Double siliqua: a Roman coin issued to 1/144 pound, or 2.25 g (2 scruples), so this is the lighter version of the miliarensis of Constantine the Great, introduced in 325 AD.

Drachm I: basic monetary unit of the ancient world. The term is derived from the Greek drachma, handful.

Drachm II: name of an ancient Greek coin used under the Archaic, Attic, Aeginetic, and Euboic monetary system. It is supposed that the name “drachm(a)” is derived from a ‘handful’ [Gr. drax] of six iron ‘spits’ [Gr. Obeloi], formerly used as primitive currency. Note that the Roman drachma is c 25/32^nd of the Greek weight.

Drachmae: (plural of drachma) an ancient Greek coin of c 65.59 imperial grains.

Draco: the first lawgiver of ancient Athens (621-620 BC), from whom the term draconian is derived.

Dupondius: a brass sometimes orichalcum coin of the Roman type, valuing two asses. It was marked II.

Dura Europos: this is an ancient Greek colony in the Euphrates River near modern Salhiyé in Syria.

Dusares: this is the Arabian Dionysos (coinage of Bostra and Adraa).

Dwarf coins: ………………….

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Earthlodge: a prehistoric permanent house, built of wattle and daub construction, and covered with sod.

Echinus: a convex moulding just below the abacus of a capital from the Dorian order.

Edelis: these were the patricians, in the time of the free republic, who had obtained edileship, either curules or cerealis, and who were entrusted with the distributions of liberalitas or liberality and/or congiarium.

Edirna: an ancient city located in far western Anatolia.

Egnatia Way: (or via Egnatia) a major Roman thoroughfare, built in the 2^nd century BC as a military route between the southern Adriatic coast and the northern Aegean Sea.

Egyptian capacity measures: 1 theban = 11,664.0 cubic inches, equals 10 besha; 1 besha equals 100 honnu = 116.64 cubic inches, or 400 hon = 29.16 cubic inches.

Egyptian gold standard: 1 Egyptian talent = 393,300.0 grains, equals 2,000 beqa shekel at 196.65 grains. The Roman Attic talent equals the weight of the Egyptian talent, and the same holds for the beqa shekel.

Egyptian weights system: (or sep/pound system) 1 sep (or pound) = 7,000 grains, equals 10 deben (or 1.6 ounces) = 700 grains, or 100 kite (or 0.16 ounces) = 70 grains.

Elaia: an ancient coastal city in Aioles, southwest of Kolchis.

Elaiussa-Sebaste: this is an ancient coastal city in Cilicia.

Electrum: natural gold and silver alloy found in the river Thermos, and the Lydian river Pactrolos near Electrum. In its purest form found in nature it is 60% gold – 40% silver. Herodotus, historian writer of Persian wars, described it as a lighter “white” gold, and noticed correctly that the density of electrum is less than the one from gold. It is used in early ancient coinage. As purity of natural electrum varies a lot the natural metal in coinage was quickly replaces by ‘industrialized’ electrum [man made gold – silver alloy].

Elysium: in Greek mythology this was a section of the underworld. It was the most pleasant part of the Greek underworld, associated with the Christian heaven.

Elysian fields: (or Elysian plains) the ancient Greek resting place of the souls of the heroic and the virtuous.

Engaged column: (or applied column) a column attached to, or partly sunk into a wall of pier.

Entablature: the upper part of an order, consisting of the architrave, frieze and cornice.

Enomotiai: a unit of 25 Greek soldiers. Two of them made a pentèkostus. Four of them made a lochos.

Epichysis: a slender-necked spouted bottle with a vertical handle, used for oils.

Entasis: the very slight convex curve used on Greek (and later) columns, spires and other structures, to correct the optical illusion of concavity which would result if the sides were straight.

Ephebos: (plural epheboi) a Greek word referring to the adolescent in ancient antiquity; ephebe in English. The word simply refers to the adolescent age of young men in trainining, whereas kouros refers to the pose.

Ephesos: an ancient metropolis in Ionia which is situated on the edge of the Mediterranean Sea. Founded by Ionian settlers under Androklos, it became of great importance during the Classical an Hellenistic era.

Epicures: [342 – 270 BC] Attic philosopher. Founder of the Epicuristic school. An association between the doctrine of Demoktritos and Aristíppos. The highest good is pleasure [tranquillity too]. Spiritual pleasure exceeds physical pleasure, and wisdom claims: forget the pleasure that one day might cause sorrow.

Epidauros: a small city and ancient sanctuary dedicated to Asklepios located on the Mediterranean Sea.

Epigoni: Diomedes, Alkmaeon, and Aigialeus. The children of the seven against Thebes (its 1^st siege).

Epiphanes: ancient Greek, meaning glorious; used as a praiseworthy epiteth for a Greek god or king.

Equites: Roman knights or horsemen.

Erastes: the elder male who seeks the affection of a youth in a courting scene.

Erechtheion: this is how the vestibule of Poseidon’s temple in Athens was called.

Erechtheus: this how Poseidon in Athens was generally known: Poseidon Erechtheus.

Erechtheus the 1^st: he was an early king of Athens, thought to be the son og Gaia, raised by Athena, patron of Athens, as her own child. Together with her, he was worshipped by the Greek on the Acropolis. In Homer’s Iliad the name Erechtheus –now called Eurechthonius, is applied to the earth-born son of Hephaestus.

Erechtheus the 2^nd: he was the son and heir of king of Pondion I of Athens by the nymph Zeuxippe.

Erechthids: (or cecropidae) a group of 17 Athenian kings (2^nd half of 1^st millennium BC). Kodros was last.

Eromenos: the youth who is pursued by the elder male in a courting scene.

Etenna: believed to be an ancient city in Pisidia, which was located in Asia Minor near the Mediterranean Sea.

Ethnicon: part of the inscription indicating the origin of ancient Greek coins, referring to a city-state or polis.

Ethno archaeology: the understanding of the ancient economy through comparative data from better-documented modern peasant economies.

Euboean standard: one of the many ancient weight standards in use in the Mediterranean basin. Euboea standard is used in the western side of the Aegean Sea. The standard unit of weight of Euboean coins is called Euboic-Attic: 6 obels per drachm, 100 drachms per mina (a mina is an accounting unit like the talent being 6,000 drachms).

Euboic gold standard: an Euboean rate of gold powder to silver. Herodotos (in III, 149) brings it to 1:13. in coinage gold converted to silver as to 1:12.44.

Euboic standard (heavy): 1talent = …., 1 mina =432g (5/6 x heavy pheidonian mina). Herodotus (in III, 89-96) sets the mina on 405g (net weight).

Euboic standard (light): an ancient standard equal to c 1.24 the Babylonian standard. 1talent = …., 1 mina =405g (5/6 of the light pheidonian mina).

Euergetism: ancient Greek royal benefactions, mostly only for ostentatious display. In Rome: a congiarium.

Eleusinian Mysteries: …

Eulisinion: this was the sanctuary of Demeter.

Eumeneia: a Phrygian city named after the Pergamene King Eumenes II, located next to the river Glaukos.

Euphrosyne: she was one of the three graces with Aglaia and Thalia, who represented splendor, beauty and adornment [Theogony, line 907-911, and 946; Iliad, book 2, lines 671-674].

Europa I: sister of Kadmus, founder of Thebes, and of the blind seer Phineus; abducted by Zeus when he took the form of a bull, and taken from the island of Creta. She bore Zeus three sons: Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpendon. She is said to be the daughter of king Agenor of Tyre, and Libya [Iliad, book 14, line 321].

Europa II: one of the three thousand daughters of Okeanos, known as the Okaenid [Theogony, line 357].

Eurydike: (or Agriope) a dryad or tree nymph. Bitten by a snake whilst being chased by Aristaios (Apollo’s son), she died. He husband, Orpheus was so distraught that he ventured into the underworld to free her.

Eurypontidai: these were the descendents of Eurypon (895-865 BC), one of the first kings of Sparta. The family ruled jointly with the Agiadai, the descendents from king Agis I.

Euxine: (or Black Sea) Axenos in Greek, meaning an inhospitable place (but kind to stangers), is the ancient name for the large inland sea known as the Black Sea.

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Failaka: an island and ancient settlement & sanctuary of the south Arabian civilization in modern Kuwait.

Fasces: these were bundles of birchen rods, carried by the lectors before the highest class of Roman magistrates, with an axe bound up in the middle of them, as for the punishment of wicked doers.

Fauces: corridor in a Roman villa, split by a janua, or door, from the vestibulum (primary entrance hall).

Fasces: these are bundles of birchen rods, carried by the lictors before the highest class of Roman magistrates, with an axe (or securis) bound up in the middle of them, as for the punishment of wicked does.

Fasti I: marble tablets, on which the Romans dedicated to posterity the names, achievements, and triumphs of their great men. These were also named the fasti consulares or the fasti capitolini.

Fasti II: those were the days on which, according to Roman sacral law the praetor was allowed to make judgements; special days in the year on which political meetings were allowed the so called dies fasti.

Fasti Caeretani: an ancient Roman calendar from before 12 BC showing a 28-day month of February.

Fasti Capitolini: these are the Roman marble tablets from the regia in the Forum Romanum, holding the names of consuls, dictators, magistri equitum, and censors from 508 BC till 354 AD.

Fasti Consulares: on these tablets the names of all magistrates, in particularly the consuls and dictators,  were annually marked; the tablets also noted the wars, victories, and political changes in republican times, together with memorials of secular games and other remarkable events.

Fatsi Kalendares: inscription of the days of each month, from calends to calends; these tablets also noted all the religious ceremonies from the beginning to the end of each month.

Faustulus: the shepherd from the Roman legend, the educator of Quirinus with the wolf-suckled twins.

Feudalism: a system of political organization, in which an elite individual called a “Lord” has control over several common people, or “Vassals”, who worke the lands and serve as warriors.

Fibula: a pin used for fastening garments.

Fides: good faith, fidelity or loyalty was adored as a goddess by the Romans according to Cicero. It refers to fidelity to the army; to the military, and not really between husband and wife.

Field: the plain surface of a coin.

Filigree: fine wire decoration on jewellery.

Fillet: a narrow hair band or ribbon.

First Brass: a formally used term to describe large Roman bronze coins, such as sestertii.

Fiscus: an official, instituted by Augustus in 6 AD, who was the personal treasury of the Roman emperor.

Flamen: Roman priests of particular gods. They were divides into three groups, following their importance; Dialis, Martialis, or Quirinalis.

Flamen Dialis: he was the priest of Jupiter.

Flamen Martialis: the priest of Mars, whose dignity was the most exalted, after that of the flamen dialis.

Flamen Guirinalis: the priest of Quirinus or the deified Romulus was the third one in order of importance.

Flan: a blanc piece of round, predetermined precious metal destined to become a coin.

Flutting: a decorative motif consisting of a series of uniform, usually vertical grooves (flutes) along the shaft.

Foederatus: (plural foederati) in the early history of the Roman Republic, this was one of the several tribes bound by treaty (foedus) who were neither Roman colonies nor Roman citizens (civitas), but were expected to provide a contingent of soldiers when trouble arose. These were Roman allies.

Follis: a Roman large billon coin containing about 5% pure silver. Introduced during the Diocletian monetary reform of 294 AD.

Foot: (or 1 pous –plural podes, or 16 digits) an ancient Greek measurement of distant equal to 309mm [variants for Ionic and Doric foot: 296-326mm]; 6 feet = 1 orgyia (1.854m); 10 feet = 1 akaina; 100 feet = 1 plethron; and 600 feet (or 6 plethra) = 1 stadion (185.4m).

Fret: (or Chinese key pattern) a decorative design contained within a band or border, consisting of repeated, often geometric figures.

Frieze: the plain or decorated horizontal part of an entablature between the cornice and the architrave.

Frisians: one of the major Germanic tribes in Europe, based primarily in the Netherlands, south Scandinavia, Danmark and the Wesser-Oder region. Because of them the Romans were mostly south of the Rhine.

Fulcrum: the handle of a couch.

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Galaia: an early Liburian prototype of transport galleys.

Galatia I: a kingdom that lasted for only four decades (64-25 BC) in Galatia. It belame Roman in 25 BC.

Galatia II: an area in the highlands of central Anatolia, between Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Lycia in the west and Pontus, Cappadocia en Caria in the east.

Galea: a Roman leather, but later bronze or iron, helmet worn by a soldier from the first wealth cast.

Gambrion: a city in Mysia which borders the Propontis, Troas, Bithynia, Phrygia, Lydia and Aiolis.

Gargara: a very fertile city in Troas, located on the Gulf of Adramytteion, between Antandros ans Assos.

Gaziura: a city in Pontos, located on the river Isis, between Komana and Amaseia.

Genetrix: the type of nude goddess identified with marriage and ideal love.

Gelon: (or Gelo) this is the son of Deinomenes. He was the 1^st of the Deinomenid rulers and the 5^th century BC tyrant of Gela, in the province of Caltanissetta in the south, and of Syracuse on the eastern coast of Sicily.

Genius: given the prominence men enjoyed within the Roman family, the Genius was seen as a spirit of some considerable importance to the household; a class of deities commonly seen as types on Roman coins.

Gens: (or ethnicity) the Latin word refers originally the “clan” or “family”. In post-Augustan Latin it acquired the wider meaning of “belonging to a distinct nation” (ethnicity). Still later the word came to mean “foreign”.

Gentile: (or ethnoi) a word derived from the Latin Gentilis, meaning ‘belonging to a tribe’. In the Bible (King James Version, 1611) this refers to non-Israelite tribes or nations.  Ethnoi, in the New Testament, or non-Jew.

Geofact: a piece of rock that has been naturally broken, as opposed to one that was broken by haman force.

Geoglyphs: a work of rock art that was made from moving or arranging stones on a landscape.

Gerasa: (or Jerash) this is the best preserved Roman town in the world, situated 48km north of Amman.

Gergis: an ancient city in Troas. Although the exact location is not known today, it is believed to be sited on the heights of Bali-Dagh, south of Ilion by a few miles.

Gigantomachy: a scene involving a battle of the giants with the gods.

Girdle of Isis: (or tit, tet, tyet) a protective amulet, the hieroglyphic sign representing well being. It was usually made of red stone, representing the blood of Isis, and her protection by her virtue and magic power.

Giza Pyramids: this is a group of three pyramids and a Sphinx, all built during the 4^th dynasty.

Gladius: piece of Roman military equipment, used as a strike and cut weapon, known as a sword.

Glaux: a skyphos with one horizontal and one vertical handle, usually decorated with an owl on each side.

Globule or pellet: a measure. On a Roman coin, it is a mark showing its weight and value [plural: globuli]. 1 globule: one uncia; 2 globules: on sextrans; 3 globules: one quadrans, it denotes the fourth part of an as; 4 globules: one triens; 5 globules: one quincunx; and 6 globules: one semis.

Gold 60-as: an ancient Roman gold coin from Republican times, introduced in 211. Circulated 211-208 BC.

Gold talent: small ingots equivalent to the gold talents of Homer, weighting 8.42 to 8,75g (130-135 grains). These talents are also known as ox-units. In Cyprus it equalled 37 tons of copper; in Argolis only 23.6 tons.

Golden Fleece: a fleece of pure gold that was all that remained of the flying ram that bore Helle and Phrixus, as they attempted to fly to safety across the Hellespont. The story of the Golden Fleece, that incorporates various Homeric creatures and heroes, is best told in the epic poem, Argonautica.

Gordian Knot: this was a lether thong, intricately wound about the shaft of an ancient vehicle on which king Midas was supposed to have arrived at Gordium. Plutarch accounts (likely by hindsight) that he who could undo it was destined to rule the world. Alexander III dealt with it by cutting it in the proverbial manner.

Gorion: ancient Greek city in modern West central Turkey, known from Alexander’s cut of the Gordion knot.

Gorgon: (or the siters of the Graiae) three mythic female creatures, usually represented with some fearful attributes such as serpentine hair, boars turks and staring eyes. The most famous is Medusa. (

Gorgoneion: the head or mask of Medusa.

Gorgrippa: an ancient city in the Bosporos, located southeast of Phanagoreia.

Goths: a loosely organized tribe from Scandinavia who were fond of wandring. They were a formidable force against the Roman empire around 350 AD.

Gr.: (or grain) this is the abbreviation for the word grain; plural is grs., or grains. 1 gr = 0.06479891 gram.

Graiae: (or the gray ones) thes were the three daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, known as the Gorgon sisters. Hesiod reports their names as: Deino (dread, the dreadfull anticipation of horror), Enyo (horror, the waster of cities) and Pamphredo or alarm (Theogony 270-274).

Grain I: (gerah in Hebrew) or kernel is a small ancient weight unit of 1/12^th pert of a shekel, so 1/12*11.5g or c 0.958g. The ancients calculated 20 gerah or 12 grains for one shekel.

Grain II: (abr. gr) an ancient measure of weight used in the early Attic standard. 1 grain equals to c 0.065g.

Greave: armour for the leg from knee to ankle.

Greek Attic weights: 1 talent = 393,300.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 6,555.0 grains, or 3,000 didrachma = 131.1 grains, or 6,000 drachmae = 65.55 grains. The Attic talent if read as feet (see foot), would be 75 Greek miles or 625 stadia (plural of stadion).

Greek Attic (trade) weights: 1 talent = 589,950.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 9,832.5 grains, or 3,000 didrachma = 196.65 grains, or 6,000 drachmae = 98.32 grains.

Greek Dry measures: 1 medimnos = 48 choenikes; 1 choenix = 4 kotylai; 1 kotyle = 6 kyathoi.

Greek lengths (new Greek foot): 1 stadion = 7,298.6666 inches, equals 10 amma = 729.866 inches, or 100 orgyia = 72.9866 inches, or 400 cubit = 18.2466 inches, or 500 pygon = 14.5973 inches, or 2,000 hand = 3.6493 inches, or 10,000 digit = 0.7298 inches. The new Greek foot is based upon the size of the earth.

Greek liquid measures: 1 metretes = 12 choes = 144 kotylai = 864 kyathoi; 1 kotyle = 6 kyathoi; 1 chous = 12 kotylai.

Griffin: a mythic creature with a lion’s body and the head and wings of an eagle.

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Hammerstone: a prehistoric object used as a hammer to create percussion on another object.

Hannibal: (247 – 183) Son of Hamilcar Barcas, general of the Carthaginian army in the 2^nd Phoenician war (218-201). After his victories at Ticinus, and Trebia in 218, and at Cannae in 216, he was defeated by Marcellus because Cartage did not send reinforcement troops and pulled him back, to defend Cartage against Scipio. After his defeat at Zama in 202, he signed peace and ruled Cartage. Hated by the Roman he had to flea. First to Antiochus II of Syria, than to Prusias II of Bithynia. When finally extradited to the Romans he committed suicide in 183.

Halicar Barcas: (= lightening) Cartegian general located in Sicily. He kept up against the Romans (247-241). After the first Phoenician war he breached the upraise of Cartesian mercenaries in North Africa, and conquered a vast part of Spain.

Halicarnassos: (or modern Bodrum) a city and ancient settlement by the Greek. Birthplace of Herodotos. This is also, since 367 BC the ancient capital of Caria, re-founded and embellished by Mausollos. Beseiged by Alexander the Great in 334 BC (after the surrender of Miletos and the Persian fleet) and unimportant since.

Haracum: this is how the sanctuary of the goddess Hera is called by the ancients.

Harpa: the hooked sward of Perseus.

Harpe: a scythe-like ancient Egyptian weapon, often falcon-headed.

Hasta: a sort of lance. On Roman coins this weapon is seen often in the hands of female deities.

Hasta pura: a spear staff without an iron head. On Roman coins it is generally found in the hands of goddesses and personifications; as the war-spear is in those of warriors and heroes.

Hastae: when placed crosswise behind a shield, these are the marks of the equestrian dignity.

Hastati: the infantry of the Roman legion, so called because at the commencement of their institution, they were around with spears.

Heart scarab: an Egyptian protective amulet, which kept the heart from speaking unkindly about the deceased. It was inscribed with the 30^th chapter from the Book of the Dead which assured the deceased that his heart would not speak against him in the Hall of Judgement.

Heavy miliarensis: a Roman silver coin introduced a few years after 310 AD, struck at 60 to the pound, the same weight of the gold aureus of 5.4g.

Hebé: this is the ancient goddess of youth, and the daughter of Jupiter.

Hebrew (heavy) desert weights: 1 talent = 786,600.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 13,110.0 grains, or 300 shekel = 262.2 grains. Notice the preference of the Hebrew (like the Greek) toward working in a 7 series.

Hebrew (light) desert weights: 1 talent = 393,300.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 6,555.0 grains, or 300 shekel = 131.1 grains. Like the Babylonians, the Hebrew had also two weight standards.

Hebrew-Jerusalem (heavy) weights: 1 talent = 471,960.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 7,866.0 grains, or 300 shekel = 157.32 grains. Like the Babylonians, a Hebrew-Jerusalem system had two weight standards too.

Hebrew-Jerusalem (light) weights: 1 talent = 943,920.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 15,732.0 grains, or 300 shekel = 314.64 grains. Like the Babylonians, the Hebrew had also two weight standards.

Hecte: (or Hectai or Hectum) a denomination of the stater, equal to 1/6^th stater or about 2.3g.

Hecatomnids: this is the dynasty founded by Hekatomnos (391-377 BC) king of Caria, master of Miletos.

Hectai: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 1/6 stater.

Hedjet: (or white crown) a mitre-like hair dress, warn by the lord of the underworld, Osiris, which represents the royal power of Upper Egypt.

Helios: this is the personification of the sun, brother of Aurore. Often identified with Apollo.

Hellenes: this is how the later Romans (Byzantine Empire), in a self-descriptive ethnic term, called the native tribal inhabitants of Greece. There were three tribes that chared the same Greek ethno-liguistic groups, linked by their use of the Ionic dialect of the Greek language: the Ionians, Dorians, and Aeolians.

Hellenistic: the period from the late 4^th century BC, following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, to the end of the 1^st century in 27 BC, following a couple of years after the death of Julius Caesar.

Hellespont: (or Helle’s Sea, modern Dardanelles Strait) a narrow strait of water that separates Asia Minor from Greece. The ancient name is after the maiden Helle, when she fell from the back of the flying ram with the Golden Fleece and drowned in the waters below. To the ancients that was the end of the world. The name is changed to Dardanelles in honour of ancestor of the Trojans, Dardanos (or Dardanus to the Latins).

Hem-hem crown: a triple-mitred Egyptian crown often worn by Harpokrates, the son of Osiris and Isis.

Heminarium: (or congiarium) a gift from Augustus to his friend made on account of their smallness.

Hemiobol: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 1/2 obol.

Hemidrachm: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing half a drachm.

Hemihecte: (or Hemihectum) an ancient denomination of the stater, equal to 1/12^th stater or c 1.15g.

Hemilitron: half of a litra coin [bronze].

Hemiobol: half of an obol coin.

Hemistater: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing ½ stater.

Hemitetartemorion: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 1/8 obol.

Heracles knot: a figure-of-eight knot.

Heraclids: (or Heracleidae) these were the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially applied in a closer sense to the descendants of Hyllus, the eldest of his four sons by Deianira. Other Heracleidae included Marcaria, Lamos, Monto, Bianor, Tlepolemus and Telephus (the most important one). The later Heraclids were a group of Dorian kings who conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms and the mainland of Greece.

Herakleia ad Latmon: an ancient city in Caria, at the foot of Mt. Latmos, in the Latmic Gulf. Here Greek coinage only began in Hellenistic times (hence after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC).

Herakleia Pontika: an important ancient city in Bithynia, on the coast of the Black Sea, founded mid 6^th century BC by Megara and Tanagra colonists.

Herakles: (or Heracles) he was the son of Zeus by Alcmena. Victim of the Hera’s jealousy, who put deadly serpents in the infant’s cradle, the sibling survived. When young adolescent the hero killed his own children in temporary madness, and was punished by the king of Tiryns, Eurystheus, by what is known the twelve lobors.

Heraldic coin: see wappenmünze.

Herm: a pillar surmounted by a head or bust.

Hermes: this is the son of Zeus by Maia, who became his messenger. He is also the guide of the spirits of the death, patron of the shepherds, and the god of the marketplace.

Hermidrachm: half of a drachma coin.

Hermias: a young boy of Iasus of Caria, who nade friends with a dolphin, which caused his accidental death.

Hero I: this is generally a character of divine origin.

Hero II: the priest from Sestus, who fell in love with Leander, who daily crossed the river until drowned.

Herodotus of Halicarnassus: (or the Father of ancient History) was a Greek historian who lived in the 5^th century BC (c 484-445). From his hand came “the Histories”, a narrative account of the Greco-Persian Wars (490 and 480-479 BC) and of various places and peoples of the Mediterranean basis and Black Sea area.

Hespere: one of the three daughters of Nyx, collectively called the Hesperides [Theogony, line 215].

Hesperides: the three daughters of Nyx (Night), Aegle, Eretheis and Hespere, were so called collectively.

Hestia I: that was the fire place (also kitchen) in the Greek villa.

Hestia II: (or eschara) that is the Greek house altar, ara to the Romans.

Hestia Bulaia: the “fire plce”of the goddess Bulaia, who to some was the goddess of the sea and the waters, to others of seafarers; ‘Bulaia, show me the money’ was Cicero’s advice to political candidates in Rome.

Hetera: a Greek courtesan.

Hexas: 1/6^th of a litra coin [bronze].

Hierapolis: this is a city in Phrygia, revered to as a holy place due to the belief that it contained an entrance to the underworld; also known for its hot springs.

Himation: an outdoor cloak, usually wool draped over one shoulder and often wrapped around the body; worn by men as their principal garment; when worn by women then usually over the chiton.

Hippodamos of Miletos: (or Hippodamus) a famous 5^th century BC Greek city planner who created plans for Hellenic colonies featuring order and regularity in disparity to Athens which is of a much “confused” order.

Hittite Empire: this is one of the earliest c 18^th century BC and greatest of three ancient Oriental poweres (Hitittes, Lydians and Persians) which succeeded each other in the interior of Anatolia (18^th–12^th century BC).

Homanid: aterm used by paleontologists up until recently to refer to humans and our immediate ancestors.

Homer I: (or Homereion) this is the legendary poet of ancient Greece, epic writer of the Iliad and Odyssey. There are several cities that claim to be his birthplace: Chios, Ephesos, Kolophon and Smyrna (all in Anatolia).

Homer II: a sepphoris measure of dry volume equal to 28476 cubic inches. 1 homer = 10 ephah = 300 seah (1 seah = 31.64 cubic inches) = 54,000 cab (1 cap = 0.879 inch³). 1 cab = 720 lang or 39,55 cubic inches.

Honeysuckle: (or anthemion) an ornament of honeysuckle or palm leaves in a radiating cluster.

Hoplite: a Greek infantry soldier. They were the core of the army.

HS: the abbreviation of an amount in Roman in Sesterces (singular: sestertius, meaning 2.5; semis = half, tertius = third, so: 2 units + half the 3^rd). Issued for the 1^st time in 211 BC, it is usually written in low cast.

Horoi: ancient Athenian loans on land used as security for the loans.

Hortus: that is the Roman garden, kèpos to the Greek.

Hydria: a water jar with two horizontal handles for lifting and a vertical handle for dipping and pouring.

Hypaspistès: a slave-servant in the Greek army in charge of carrying the weaponry.

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Iamidae: these were the descendants from Apollo’s son, Iămus.

Iasus: an ancient coastal cityin Caria, west of Mylasa. This was a colony from Argos.

Iconography: is the branch of art history which studies the identification, depiction and the interpretation of images and content; painting of icons; alternatively, the study of signs and symbols.

Idyma: this is an ancient coastal city in Caria, which bordersto the Mediterranean Sea and to Lydia, Phrygia, Lycia, and Ionia.

Idus: (or ides) depending on the month, this could be the 13^th or the 15^th day. The ancient thought that this was the day of the full moon. The Romans considered this an auspicious day in their calendar.

Ikarius: a kind man from ancient Attica, who entertained the god of wine, Dionysus travelling to Attica. In reward for his kindness, Dionysus gave Ikarius the gift of wine which was unknown to mortals.  Sharing the wine with friends, who killed him when they got drunk. His daughter, Erigone, hang herself the next day.

Ikarus: son of the famous craftsman, Deadalus. He was killed while he and his father were trying to flee king Minos of the island of Crete (flew too close to Helios, the Sun, so that the wax of his wings melted).

Iliad: together with the Odyssey, Homer’s Greek epic poem. May be created in the second half of the 9^th century BC, in the framework of the Greek epic tradition of oral formulaic poetry, which started in the Peloponnese in proto-Mycenaean times (c 1600 BC). The epic verse is maybe taken from the Minoan Cretans.

Immortals I: one of the most honoured elements of the army of Xerxes, king of Persia. They were so named because their number was constant at ten thousand [Histories, book 7, # 83; book 8, # 113].

Immortals II: that was the substitute name for the deathless ancient Greek gods and goddesses.

Immunitas: (or exemption from duties) this was one of the several forms of legal immunity in ancient Rome.

In antis: having a recessed portico with a row of columns between the antae, as in some ancient Greek temples; alternatively: being the portico or columns in such an arrangement.

Incuse: the deep punch-marks on the reverse side of a coin that has no design. However the early coins of South Italy had a design. Nevertheless these coins are called “incuse”. These South Italian coins, matching to the type of the obverse in relief, concave.

Indus Civilization: one of the most ancient, presently known, societies, located in the greater Indus Valley of Pakistan and India, and its mature phase is dated between 2500 and 2000 BC.

Infamia: these were Romans subjected to civil degradation as the result of dishonourable acts or crimes.

Ingots: (singular ingot) a bronze bar, a prehistoric ingot equal to a talents range from 37,094 to 23,625g. In another weight standard, these prehistoric (may be Euboean standard) ingots scale 19,160g.

Inscription: (or legend) the letter and/or word-combination, generally around the image of the Roman emperor on the obverse side, and in a circular line round the cult statuette or design on the reverse.

Intercolumniation: this is the spacing between the columns in a colonnade, as measured at the bottom of the shafts. There are several standards determined by the Roman architect Vitruvius: Pycnostyle or 1½  diameter, Systyle or 2 diameters, Eustyle or 2¼ diameter (that was according to Vitruvius the best), Distyle or 3 diameters, Araeostyle or 4+ diameters (this kind would now require a wooden roof).

Iolkos: (or Iolkus) an ancient Greek coastal city-state located near the eastern coast of Greece on the slopes of mount Pelion on the Gulf of Pagasai. Here Jason had built the Argo.

Ion: (don’t confond with the atom) this was the legendary Greek hero after whom the Ionians are named. He was a Deucalion, who became king of Athens after the death of Erechtheus the 1^st. His brother was Achaeus, the eponym of the Achaeans. Son of Xouthus and Creousa the daughter of Athenian king Erechtheus.

Ionia: that is an ancient region in Asia Minor (the western coast). It included the islands in the Aegean Sea.

Ionian League: (or Panionic League) a confederacy in c 800 BC between 12 Ionian city-states (Herodotus i.142). These were: Miletus, Myus, and Priene in Caria; Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Clazomenae, and Phocaea in Lydia; Chios, and Erythrae in Asia Minor, and the island of Samos. Later, Smyrna joined. The league gathered to celebrate the panionia, a religious festival and games dedicated to Poseidon Heliconius.

Ionians: one of the 3 Greek ethno-linguistic groups, jointly named the Hellenes, who occupied early Greece.

Ionic style: the Ionic column had its name the Greek tribe the Ionians. It consisted of a long secular shaft, generally made out of a certain number of drums. The shaft was broken by parallel indentures, called flutings with sharp edges. The pillar was divided in three parts: I the foot or base, II the shaft and III the capital. I The foot was much like the capital of the Doric style. A square base followed with several cylindrical elements, and a neck which was in fact part of the first drum of the shaft; II the shaft consisted of a stem of circular form, which had lengthways paralleled indentures with somewhat sharp angles; and III a capital consisting of three parts: a neck which headed the shaft, a double spiral ornamentation called volute, and a square top.

Iron Age: this is part of the three age system (stone, bronze and iron), invented in early 19^th century, to differentiate between several levels of pre-historic societies. In this stage of development, men started to make tools and weapons from iron (12^th century BC Greece; 8^th c BC Central, and 6^th c BC northern Europe).

Iron bar standard: this is the iron bar found at the Heraion of Argos, representing 180 Eboic minai of 405g.

Isinda: this is an ancient city situated in the southwest of Pisidia (lies next to Lycia, Phrygia, Cilicia etc.).

Isis-knot: the knot tied on an Egyptian female garment below the breast, as on Isis.

Islamic Civilization: this was once the greatest civilization in the world driven by invention, able to create a continental super-state that stretched from ocean to ocean, and from northern climes to tropics and desserts. This was the Islamic world from 800-1600, including the Ottoman Empire and the courts of Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo. Those were 800 years of invention and prosperity. Today it is a wide variety of cultures.

Ithyphallic satir: an aroused Satir, or male lascivious being and follower of Dionysos, in a provocative pose.

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Janua: this is the door or doorway of the Roman villa.

Jaso: (or Iaso) the Greek goddess of healing.

Jason: (Iason in Greek) a famous adventurer and the lover of Demeter. He was struck by a thunderbolt fighting Zeus. Demeter gave him a child, Plutus (Greek personification of agricultural wealth), who became known as the symbol of abundance [Odyssey, book 5, line 126].

Jital: a billon coin, issued by Hindu and Muslims, originally struck by the Shahi dynasty from c 750 AD.

Jugate: two joined objects, usually heads or axes.

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Ka: the ancient Egyptians believed that a double for a person’s spirit, would remain living on in the area of the tomb following the person’s death.

Kabeiri: (or Kabeiroi) the Cabiri in Latin, a mysterious deity, revered in nearly all countries of the Near East. They were worshiped in Samothrace and on Lemnos (island sacred to Vulcan) and were popularly represented as cosmic dwarves, and masters of the art of working metals; a generic title they were of both sexes.

Kabeira: this is the vally of the Lykos, in Pontos, favourite residence of the Mithradates.

Kabeiros: an ancient non-Greek god, of possibly Phrygian origin; a cult connected with the arth and fertility.

Kadmus: the legendary founder of Thebes on his search for Europa; son of Agenor and the blind seer, Phineus; brother of Europa; married to Harmonia, who gave him five children [Theogony, line 976].

Kalendae: (or calends) a term derived from the word calendar. This is the first day of the month of the ancient calendar, thought to have been the first day of the new moon. Interest on debt was due on calends.

Kalpe: (modern Gibraltar) ancient Greek name for the Rock of Gibraltar on the south-central coast of Spain.

Kalima: the Muslim assertion of faith, usually used as the main inscription on the obverse of Islamic types.

Kantharos: a wine cup with two high vertical handles; most often on a tall stem.

Kastor: (Castor to the Latins) one of the Dioskuri (twin sons of Zeus by Leda), brother of Helen, Phoibe and Klytemnestra. Killed by Idas, whilst stealing cattle, and next conditionally made immortal by Zeus (one of the Dioscuri had to stay in the Underworld whilst the other one could live on the surface of the Earth.

Kausia: Macedonian flat-topped hat.

Kekryphalos: a head scarf, open at the back, allowing the hair to flow down.

Kelenderis: this in an important ancient coastal city in Cilicia.

Kendrisos: this is an ancient Thracian god.

Kèpos: that is the Greek garden, hortus to the Romans.

Kharoshthi script: Aramaic-Indian script, used for bilingual inscriptions on Baktrian coins.

Kios: located on the eastern coastline of the Propontis, this was an important ancient commercial port, destroyed by Philip III of Macedon in 202 BC, but rebuilt afterwards.

Kithara: a rectangular form of lyre often played by Apollo.

Kitharodos: referring to a statue of Apollo playing a kithara.

Klazomenai: an ancient Ionian coastal city, and the birthplace of the philosopher Anaxagoras.

Kodros: he was the last of a group of 17 mythic kings of Athens (1089-1068 BC), known as the erechthids.

Kolchis: an ancient Georgian region and kingdom in the Caucasus; an ancient tribal union emerged in the 13^th century BC on the south-eastern coastline of the Black Sea, a district bounded southwest by the Pontus.

Kolophon: an important ancient city located in Ionia. They too claimed that this is the birthplace of Homer.

Komast: a dancing, drunk male reveller.

Komama: an ancient city in the west of Pisidia.

Komana: an ancient city located on the river Isis in ancient Pontos. It housed a famous temple of artemis.

Korai I: this is the female sculptural counterpart of the archaic male Kouros figuer.

Kourai II: this is a Baloch tribe settled in the Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan province of Pakistan.

Kore: an archaic figure of a standing draped maiden [plural: korai]; the female equivalent of the kouros.

Kouros: (or beardless youth; plural kouroi) an archaic stature of a standing nude young male (ephebos) in a frontal pose, with the left foot advanced; Homer refered to this figure as a “young soldier”.

Krater: a large deep wide-mouthed bowl used for mixing wine with water. [see also Bell krater in the form of an upturned bell; Calyx krater: in the form of a flaring flower; Column krater: with two large vertical double handles; Skyphoid krater: in the form of a skyphos, and Volute krater: with 2 large spiral handles].

Kremna: this was a strongly fortified town located in the centre of Pisidia.

Kushan: a nomadic people who ruled Afghanistan and parts of northern India during the 2^nd century AD.

Kybele: (or Cybele) a Phrygian, multi-breasted, goddess wit a crescent on her forehead and carrying a three-storied temple on her head which indicates that she is the protector of cities. The crescent on her forehead indicates that she is also the Moon Goddess and the breasts link her to fertility. To the Greek: Artemis.

Kylix: a shallow wine cup with two handles, most often on a stemmed foot.

Kyme: this city is located in Aiolis, and was by far the most important ancient city. It has a much tormented history which goes back to the Persians, Athenians, Hellenistic kings, and to the Roman domination.

Kyzikos: a city located on the island of Arktonnesos in the Propontis. It occupied a place of great commercial importance, and was amongst the earliest to coin in electron nuggets. Its silver circulated in many 5^th century BC cities. They were schrude politiciant who kept good relations with the Pergamene kings and the Romans.

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Labarum: a type of vexillum, representing the personal field sign of the Roman commander in chief. One of the best known is the field sign of emperor Constantinus Magnus, the christogram.

Lampsakos: this city is located on the eastern entrance of the Hellespont, which empties its waters into the Propontis. In time it became a very important city because of its location. Controlled by the Persians and Athenians in the 6^th and 5^th century BC.

Laodikeia: an ancient city in Propontos, on the road between Amisos and Amaseia.

Lararium: a shrine or house altar for the worship of the Lares.

Lares: these are in Roman mythology protective spirits, often associated with the home and household, but they had also other responsibilities. Lares praestites: of the State; Lares viales: of the roads.

Lares compitales: this was in Roman myths the guardian spirits of crossroads. In 7 BC Rome Augustus had placed a sheer 265 altars at crossroads for the welfare of his Genius.

Lares familiares: the Roman guardian spirits of house and fields. Her ancestral cult is believed to be derived from the worshipping of the deceased pater familias (or head of the family).

Lares Permarini: this was the Roman guardian spirits of sailors.

Legend I: by this appellation numismatists distinguish the words engraved on coins. From the writing which is an assemblage of words that hold, in the area, or middle, of the medal, the place of a type and/or its ruler.

Legend II: (or inscription) the letter and/or word-combination, generally around the image of the Roman emperor on the obverse side, and in a circular line round the cult statuette or design on the reverse.

Legion: a Roman army unit of 3,000 men consisting of 30 manipuli which were configured upon age. A legion consisted of two war units of 1,200 men each (hastate & principes) and a 3^rd one (triarii or pilii) of 600 men.

Lekythos: a tall, narrow-necked, footed flask with one vertical handle, for oils and unguents.

Lelegeis: (or Pityussa) was a Lelegian settlement located on the western shore of the Lamic Gulf, at the mouth of the Meander river, which, according to Strabo has been rebuilt as Miletus (XIV, i, 3).

Leleges: (prural Lelegeis) in prehistoric times they were the original natives of southwest Anatolia (Asia Minor). According to Apollodorus, the name is derived from king Lelex; the allies of troy (in Homer’s Iliad ii 10.429). Strabo named these Graeco-Ionian tribes also the Pityussae.

Leucippus I: the eponymous founder (late 6^th - early 5^th century BC) of Metapontum in the south of Italy.

Leucippus II: (or Leucippus of Miletus) was a 5^th century BC Greek philosopher credited by Aristotle and by Theophrstus with having originated the theory of atomism (but had not pursued it).

Liberti: (or freedman) a former slave who was freed from slavery (manumitted); ca 5% of the Roman population in Imperial times.

Libra I: an ancient Roman measurement of weight equal to 4,725 grains. Also the vertical height of the Khafra Pyramid at 472.5 feet. This occurs in the weights standards of several Mediterranean civilizations.

Libra II: 1 libra equals 96 denarius = 4,719.60 grains.

Lictor: (plural lictores) officers established by Romulus, after the example of the Etruscans; bodyguards.

Litic: a term used in archaeology, meaning an artefact made of stone; the study chipped stone-made tools.

Litra: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 12 dichalkon [bronze].

Litrae: (or ….) an ancient Roman silver coin issued soon after 280 BC to trade with city-states. It closely resembled the coinage of the cities in Magna Graecia.

Libra: an ancient European weight, based upon the Troy weight standard of one mina equals to 488-489g. Because of its fame in Europe the authoritative sample, indicated the weight of a libra of 489.5g (French pound: 489.506g. The English pound, 15/16^th x was c 2g less to make it equal to 100 Byzantine solidi).

Libral As: this is the Roman standard weight of on average 267.83g to the pound, equalling an aes grave. In this standard the silver denarius would be equal to 1,678.3g of bronze (on average). If gold then possessed 12x the value of silver (duodecimal standard) it would require 32.1 tons of copper as an equivalent of a little gold coin of the weight of a denarius, had such a gold coin existed.

Liberalitas: the virtue of liberality was one of the most popular qualities of a Roman emperor. It implied an imperial gift of a certain sum of money given to each citizen of Rome. When grain or bread was distributed, to prevent evils of dearness and famine from affecting the Roman plebs, it was called Annona.

Liburnians: the ancient inhabitants of Liburnia. They were notorious seafarers (raids in the Adriatic Sea).

Libymidas: (or libuma) this is a Liburnian warship (like the drakoforos). To the Romans this was a Libuma.

Lintel: the horizontal beam that forms the upper member of a window or door frame and supports the structure above it.

Lion of Dur-Sharrukin: an ancient set of weights which is composed of 120 minai weighing 502.525g.

Lion of Susa: an ancient set of Babylonian weights which is composed of 240 minai weighing 506.429g.

Litra: an ancient Sicilian bronze weight unit. The silver coin of corresponding value corresponded with a 5^th part of the Sicilian drachma. Out of Sicily the obol [1/6^th drachma] was used.

Lochos: two companies of fifty men, hence a unit of one hundred Greek soldiers, headed by a lochagos.

Lorica: (or breast-plate) a piece of military armament [see also Aegis].

Loutrophoros: a tall, elegant vase with long, volute, vertical handles, used for water at weddings and funerals.

Lower Egypt: the northern part of Egypt, known as the Nile Delta; the southern part is called Upper Egypt.

Ludi: (or festival) originally started as religious festivals, but over time the entertainment aspect grew to become more important, these were ancient public games. They were very important in Roman society.

Ludi Capitolini: these were the games in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, first organized by Furius Camillus, and at a later period restored by Domitian, and placed on an equality with the national Hellenis festivals.

Lunar disk: (or crescent moon disk) this is the headdress of several Egyptian lunar deities such as Khonsu.

Lycia: an ancient region bordering the Mediterranean Sea. It had a vmuch varied coinage of fractions under Persian suzerainty and silver staters were produced thanks to various Lycian dynasts during the 5^th and 4^th century BC and the invasion in 360 BC by Maussollos.

Lydia: this is an historic region in ancient Anatolia (modern Turkey) congruent today with the provinces of Ismir and Manisa. It became a huge Empire, covering the western part of Anatolia, till taken by the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 546 BC. After the defeat of Darius III by Alexander the Great in 331 BC it became Macedonian, next Roman after the fall of Sardis in 133 BC.

Lydo-Milesian standard: this is the weight standard used for the early electrum coins of Miletus (and their silver successors), in which the stater was c 14g (may be a month’s pay for a soldier) and small fractions up to one ninety-sixth were used. In this system 1 mina equalled to 60, or later, to 50 staters.

Lysippos: a much noted Greek bronze sculptor from Sicyon, active c 360-315 BC, famed for initiating more slender bodies and smaller heads than those of Polykleitos.

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Madden: generic term for the coinage of the Jews (Mt 10:9, Mk 6:8, and 12:41).

Magister equitum: a Roman commander of the cavalry.

Magister militum: a Roman commander of the infantry.

Maiorinae I: a Roman billon coin to swap the centenionalis, struck on two weight standards (5.2g; 4.5g). The larger, know as, a large Æ2; the smaller, which then have been the centenionalis, as a small Æ2 type. There existed also a double Maiorinae which was about 9-10g.

Mallos: this is an important ancient city in eastern Cilicia, founded at the time of the Troyan War.

Mammon: god of greed.

Mariorinae II: (or maiorina pecunia) meaning “rather large” refers to a Roman law in 349 AD (condemned the practice of “purifying” by taking off the silver content of the coin) and to the Roman monetary law of 356 AD (forbade the transport of coins to other regions than those in which the coin was destined as payment).

Marsyas I: the satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music and lost his hide and life. He was the son of Olympus, or of Oeagrus, or of Hyagnis.

Marsyas II: a river in Caria.

Maroneia: a city in ancient Thrace. Not far away from the Samothrace. It is named after Maron, a priest of Apollo, who features in the Odyssey. The poleis was noted for its fine wine.

Massiqtu: (or double artaba) a Persian measurement of weight (of dry capacity) used as a corn-measure, in use in the ancient Mediterranean basin. This is the sexagesimal multiple of the mina. According to Herodotus (in histories 1.192) it equals to 2artabas = 2*(1 medimnus + 3 Attic choenices) or c 58,320g or c.c.

Mastoid cup: a cup in the form of a female breast.

Medal: from the French word médaille, which takes its derivation from the Latin word, metallum. The name is given to pieces of gold, silver or brass, which bear an impression designed to preserve the remembrance of a great man, sovereign or of a remarkable event.

Medals: pieces of metal (bronze, silver or gold) which, multiplied in an uniform manner, without having any precise value attached to them, and without uniting the known and determinate of standard, weight and type, are designed to serve in commemoration of events or of personages.

Medimnus I: (Attic medimnus) a measurement of dry capacity, principally used as a corn-measure, equal to 96 sextarii or c 12 gallons. There was an Attic medimnus which is 5 modii, and a Ptolemaic one (2.5 modii).

Medimnus II: this is an ancient Greek measurement of dry capacity. 1 medimnus = 3.110.43 cubic inches equals 6 hecteus = 518.4 cubic inches, or 48 choemix = 64.8 cubic inches, or 192 coytle = 16.2 cubic inches, or 1,152 cyathus = 2.7 cubic inches.

Megiste: this is a small island in teh Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Lycia.

Memnon: Son of Eros, king of Aithiopia. He fought with the Trojans and was killed by Achilles.

Menat: a long counterpoise of a beard collar, usually associated with the Egyptian god Hathor or the cow goddess known as the great mother. It possessed divine healing powers.

Mesolithic period: this is traditionally the time between the last glaciation (c 10,000 years BP) and the beginning of the Neolithic age (c 5,000 years BP).

Mesopotamian standard: ancient Greek weight were derived from the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, which had evolved from the 3^rd millennium BC. 1talent = 60 minae, 1 mina = 60 staters of 432g (5/6 x heavy pheidonian mina), 1 stater = 2 drachmae, 1 drachma = 6 obols. This is the basis on which coins were struck in various weight standard. The Mesopotamian standard relates to the bronze bar of Nippur which had a weight of 41.5kg (equals to 96 stereo metric brut minai of c 432g).

Metal Rotation: with this term numismatics describe the alignment of the obverse/reverse coin side. With the top of the obverse side (OS) at 12h and then turning the coin clockwise, whilst holding it between thumb and wise-finger, the reverse side (RS) rotates to its just “hourly-degree” (at 06h it is upside down).

Methymna: this is the second city founded by the eponymous Methymna, daughter of Macar the son of Rhodus and Helios (one of the Heliadae) on the island of Lesbos. It is in the north of the island.

Metic: (plural metics) from the Greek word metoikos. The lower class of a city-state. They had no rights of residence and were the immigrants and slaves. They shared the burdens of citizenship, not its privileges.

Metope: any of the spaces between two tri-glyphs on a Doric frieze.

Metretes: this is an ancient Greek measurement of liquid capacity. 1 metretes = 2,332.82 cubic inches equals 12 chous = 194.4 cubic inches, or 144 cotyle =16.2 cubic inches, or 567 oxybaphon = 4.05 cubic inches, or 864 cyanthus = 2.7 cubic inches.

Metropolis I: (or principal city) in the classical language this refers to the most important city in the region.

Metropolis II: this is an inland town within the region of Ionia in western Anatolia.

Microliths: these are small chipped stone tools, like scrapers or burins, made in the late Paleolithic (30,000-10,000  BP)and Mesolithic period (10,000-5,000 BP).

Milesian School: an ancient school of thought, founded in the 6^th century BC, by the three truly scientific philosophers from Miletus (Ionia): Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. They presented a view of nature in terms of methodologically observable entities and presented new opinions on how the world was organized.

Milesian standard: (or Lydo-Milesian standard) an ancient weight standard used before 494 BC for ancient Milesian electrum, gold and silver coinage. In this monetary system the electrum stater was c 14 grams.

Miletos: (or Miletus) re-founded by Neleus, son of Kodros, in 1075 BC as a Greek-Ionian settlement, this is ancient Millawanda at the Latmic Gulf near the mouth of the Meander river, called Anactoria in Greek Myths; also called chieftown of the Paniones, or Millawanda (by the Hittites), or present-day Balat in Turkey.

Miletus I: son of Akakalis, daughter of Minos, with Apollo who commanded the she-wolves to come down and nurse the child. He fled from Crete to avoid becoming the eronmenos (lover-boy) of king Minos (Nicander in Metamorphoses xxx 1-2). In other accounts he was a boy loved by all three sons of Europa: Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. The three fought over him, and Minos won the battle (Apollodorus, iii 1-2).

Miletus II: an ancient coastal city in western Anatolia (modern Turkey) near the mouth of the Meander River in ancient Caria, founded by the hero Miletus who had fled from Crete to Lycia (Apollodorus, iii 1-2). The city was part of the Ionian League.

Miliarensis: a Roman silver coin introduced by Constantine in 325 AD to resume production of the siliqua which collapsed in 310 AD, as 1/3^rd heavier (4 instead of 3 scruples). Now it equalled the solidus of 5.4g.

Millawanda: (or Anactoria) this is how the Hittites called Miletos in c 1320 BC.

Mina I: (or qa) an ancient unit in a sexagesimal multiple of weight, equal to 1/6^th of an artaba. Plural: minai.

Mina II: (or money-mina) the ancient Greek modified the Babylonian scale, in that, starting from the siglos as unit, they invented a money-mina of 50 sigli, with a money-talent of 60 minai or 3,000 sigli. The mina of 432g was the basis of the Attic coinage standard: 1 drachm = 432g.

Mina III: (or the correct mina) the ancient Babylonian weight unit corrected to 486g. So the unit or brute mina, increased slightly by 1/24^th and turned into 506.25g. In contrast to what many ancient Greek authors narrate, the Babylonian mina was not equal to 70 but to 72 Attic drachmai. Aelianus indicates the mina of 504g which as a matter a fact equals 70*4.32g (one drachm).

Minoan: an ancient culture of the island of Crete dating from c 3000-1100 BC. Its fall is ascribed to a variety of destructive influences, ranging from invasions to volcanic eruption on Thera. Era known as the Bronze age.

Mithra: this is an important ancient deity in Zoroastrianism and later Indo-Iranian history and culture.

Mithradata: this refers to the ancient Iranian royal family of the Mithridates of Persia, Kios, Pontus, Parthia, Commagene, Armenia, Iberia and of Bosporus.

Mithraea: the name of Mithras’s cult centers, which were built around splaea (terrestrial caves).

Mithraeum: a sanctuary for the worship of Mithras, usually in the form of a cave.

Mithras I: he was a Persian god and servant of the sun god, worshipped a.o.t. in India, Iran and throughout the Roman Empire, especially by the emperor Elagabalus.

Mithras II: this is an ancient Iranian god who promised benefits after death.

Mithridate: (or Mithradates) is the Hellenistic form of an Iranian theophoric nama meaning given by Mithra.

Mithridates the Great: this is Mithridates IV of Pontus (170-150 BC), brother of Pharnaces (5^th Pontic king).

Modii: a Roman measurement of dry capacity, principally used as a corn-measure. 1 modius = 16 sextraii. 4 modii (or 1.33 amphorae) was the monthly wage given to slaves.

Modius: a bushel measure of wheat for instance, or any dry or solid commodity (1/3^rd part of an amphora).

Modillion: an ornamental bracket, usually in the form of a scroll with acanthus, used in series beneath a Corinthian, or Roman Ionic cornice.

Moira: she is the goddess of Fate. Quite similar like Aisa, who is the goddess of Destiny.

Molossians: native tribe in ancient Epirus; settles in parts of Asia Minor [Histories, book 1, # 146].

Monetization: this is how the process of familiarizing coinage (in a forced tender) is named. In such a tender the currency cannot be refused as payment for debts denominated in the same cash. The Greeks started their monetization in the Mediterranean basin mid 7^th century BC, the Romans by the turn of the 4^th century BC.

Monopteros: (or circular shrine) this is a temple, built in a circular form, with columns around its outer wall.

Mopsos: an ancient city in Cilicia on the river Pyramos.

Mora: a Spartan hoplite army, of 600–620 men, by the end of the Peloponnesian War [plural: morai].

Mughal: the standard gold coin of India, struck originally under the Mughal dynasty.

Municipium: the 2^nd highest class of a Roman city. It was however inferior to the status of colonia.

Munus: (or munnus) a gift, a present, a bribe, a charge, a duty or office. Munera, commune plays and organized fights for the people to behold, to rejoice them, prepared by officers of cities. As in Rome, sundry players, sword players, called Gladiators, hunting of wild beasts.

MunusII: a service, office, post, employment, function or duty; a work; the last service, office to the dead (i.e. a burial); a public show, spectacle, entertainment or exhibition; abbreviation [M] on Caesar’s silver.

Muse: any one of the nine goddesses, daughters of Zeus, who protected and encouraged poetry, music, dancing, history, and other branches of art and learning.

Mylasa: this was the principal non-Greek city in western Caria, and its capital in 395-377 BC.

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Nabonidus Chronicle: an ancient account of the events during the rule of king Nabonidus (556-539 BC), the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, before Cyrus the Great conquered Babylonia in 539 BC. The records describe how Cyrus’ power began to rise through victorious battles in Syria and southeast of modern Turkey.

Nagidos: an important coastal town in the southwest of Cilicia.

Naikos: a small shrine or monument (naos) in the form of a temple, with a pediment on two columns.

Naos: the shrine of an Egyptian deity, representing an image of heaven beyond its doors.

Nebris: a fawn skin, used as a mantle or cloak, often over one shoulder and across the chest, by Dionysos and his followers.

Nebuchadrezzar II standard: (or black basalt standard) is an ancient weighing standard from 606 BC. There were two of them. A heavy (or double) standard: 1 talent = 906,000.0 grains, equals 60 mina at 15,100 grains, or 3,60 shekel = 251.66 grains, and a light (or single) standard: 1 talent =453,000 grains, equals 60 mina = 7,550 grains, or 3,600 shekel = 125.83 grains.

Neck amphora: on this amphora meets the neck the body at a sharp angle. When the neck amphora has an “egg-shaped”  body (c 565-559 BC) then it’s named a Tyrrhenian amphora.

Necklace of Harmonia: a necklace designed and crafted by the Smith of the Gods, Hephaistos, was given to Harmonia, mother of the goddess of Love, Aphrodite. It was to bring eternally youth and prettiness. The legend of this jewellery is tied to the origins of Thebes by its primary king, Cadmus, and passed down through generations to Polynikes. He gave it to Amphiaraus, a warrior who marched against Thebes and died a supernatural death. Since then the necklace is cursed for it would bring bad luck to its owners or wearers.

Negotium: this is a Roman private undertaking (public: publicum). He that undertook was a: negotiatores.

Neleïdae: descendents of Neleus, founder of Miletos and a son of the legendary last king of Athens, Kodros.

Neleus: this is the founder of Miletos in c 1075 BC. He was the son of Kodrod, the last mythic king of Athens.

Nemean Games: these were festivals held in Cleonae, and later in Argos, every two years, in alternatively in winter and in summer.

Nemes: the royal head cloth worn by the pharaoh.

Nestor: king of Pylos. Participated in the Trojan campaign. At the time he was the oldest participating ruler. He had two sons: Antilochos and Peisistratos.

Nicephoros: a little cult statue in the form of a Victory (Nike) statue, holding a circular wreath. The statuette was generally held on one of Zeus’s stretched hands. On Greek coinage the statuette is often positioned flying in the field above a horse or mule drawn chariot.

Nikaia: (or Arsinoe) this is an ancient city in Bithynia, renamed in early c 305 BC Arsinoe by Lysimachos in honor of his Egyptian wife and syster op Ptolemy II. The same happened briefly with (new) Ephesos.

Nikosthenic amphora: on this amphora the flaring vertical handles meet the neck of the vase.

Nikai: this how the ancient Greeks called their statues of Victory. During the Peloponnesian War Athens had melted them en masse to assure their money supply.

Nike: goddess or personification of victory, generally with wings. From the many known representations of the goddess, the one from Paionios is most known [museum of Olympia]. A temple dedicated to Nike is in the Acropolis, right from the Propylaien.

Nimbate: a word derived from “nimbus”, which is a bright or golden disk surrounding the head of a saint.

Nolan amphora: on this vase both ends of the handles meet the body.

Nones: the nones of the Roman calendar, depending on the length of the month, were on the 5^th or 7^th. Yet nones is Latin for nine. The Romans used inclusive counting. The Roman week was called a nine-day, the Latin nundinae, but was actually only eight days, according to our way of counting. Hence the nones was one nundinae, or nine-day, before the ides. So in a 31 day month, with the ides on the 15^th, the nones would be 8 days before, which makes it to the 7^th.

Nummus: (or Æ 4) a Roman bronze coinage introduced in c 379 AD equal to ½ the centenionalis.

Numus: (or nummus) the name by which the Romans denoted a coined piece of metal. The word seems to be derived from the Greek ΝΟΜΟΣ (nomos) or the Latin NUMISMA which signifies what we call money.

Nymph: (or dryad) a broad term for maiden who lives in rivers, springs, mountains, forests, etc. Nymph means “bride”. Types of nymphs: Okeanid (of the ocean), Naiad (of a river, lake or spring), Hamadryad or just Dyad (of a tree), Sylph (of the air), and Oread (of a mountain.

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Obol: a small silver coin, valuing one 6^th part of a drachm.

Obverse: front side of a coin with a design on it. This side is struck from the anvil die [fix die in the anvil].

Ocreae: piece of Roman military equipment, used to protect the shin-bone.

Odometer: a device used in the late Hellenistic era by Romans for indicating distance travelled by a vehicle. It is described in detail by Vitruvius around 27-23 BC. The actual invention may have been in the 1^st Punic War by Archimedes (a 4 feet chariot wheel turns exactly 400x in one Roman mile.

Oekist: (or oikist) this is the name given to a person chosen to lead the setting up of a new colony.

Officina: (plural officinae) or office. This is how the Roman mint was called: officina monetae.

Officina monetae: (or mint) is a monetary workshop. Its inspectors were called officinatores monetae.

Oikonomia: the root, not the synonym, of the word “economy”. To the ancient Greek it meant household management, a familial activity that was subsumed in the traditional social and political institutions.

Okeanid: any of the daughters of Ocean –Okeanos in Greek, and Tethys. Together with the Rivers and Apollo Zeus had given them the special duty of having the juvenile in their keeping (plural: Okeanids).

Oktadrachm: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 8 drachm.

Olympian Zeus: this is the patron god of Macedon. The Olympian Zeus is on the reverse of nearly all the silver coinage of Alexander the Great, enthroned, after Phidias’ famous statue at Olympia. The obverse has Herakles with his lion-mask hood and clad in the Nemean lion skin. As the mints go east, the Zeus, carved by non-Greek craftsmen, grows increasingly vague, and Herakles’ face more and more like Alexander.

Omphalos: the round stone at Delphi representing the centre or navel-stone of the earth.

Onkia: (or ounce) a Sicilian bronze coin, worth either a 12^th part of a litra coin [Sicily], or a 16^th part of a drachma coin. The coin was first introduced in the 5^th century BC.

Opistodomos: (or posticum) this is the back-hall of a Greek temple structure. It was generally the west side. The front-hall (or prodomos) was generally east and followed by the cella.

Oracle: a mythic person, usually a priestess associated with the cults of deities derived from a great goddess of nature and fertillity, considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion (c 1300 BC).

Oracle of Bŭra: after consulting Heracles in his sanctuary in Bura in Achaea, the prophesy was made by interpretation of the lot or dice. This happened also in Delphi, maybe when the Pythia kept in silence.

Oracle of Cichyrus: Cĭchŷrus in Epirus was an entrance to the Underworld, hence an oracle of the dead.

Oracle of Clăris: (or Claric Oracle) this was a very ancient oracle near Colophon in Asia Minor. The priest, after simply hearing the names and the numbers of those consulting the oracle, drank the water of a spring, and then gave the answer in verse.

Oracle of Cumae: at Lake Avernus, near Cumae in Italy, was an entrance to the Underworld, hence an oracle of the dead. This type of oracle is also known as a Psychomanteia.

Oracle of Delphi: (or Delphic Oracle) the oracle was originally associated to a goddess of nature and fertility changed into a center of worship of Apollo in the Greek classical period. A center of advice & interpretation on the slopes of Mt. Pamassos near Delphi in the south of the Greek mainland.

Oracle of Didyma: (or Didymaion) 6^th century BC; 2^nd major sanctuary and oracle of Apollo in the ancient world, situated between Miletos & Ephesos in Asia Minor, on the slopes of Mt. Didymon Near Didyma in Ionia.

Oracle of Dodona: the predictions at Dodona were made, according to Homer (Od. Xiv 327; xix 296), from the rustling of the sacred oak, and at a later time from the sound of a brazen cymbal. This oracle where prophesy was given by signs, was one of the most respected in the ancient Greek world.

Oracle of Epidaurus: here, after sertain preliminary rites, the sick person was to sleep in the temple. The priests then interpreted their dreams, and dictated accordingly the means to be taken to insure recovery.

Oracle of Laconia: at the promontory of Taerarum in Laconia was an entrance to the Underwolrd, hence an oracle of the dead. This type of oracle is also known as a Psychomanteia.

Oracle of Olympia: after consulting Zeus, the Iamidae interpreted his signs derived from the entrails of victims and the burning of sacrifices on the altar.

Oracle of Pergamon: like in Epidaurus, the sick slept in the temple where their dreams were interpreted.

Oracle of Psychomanteia: this was the oracle of the dead. Here the souls of the dead were evoked in order to give the information desired. These types of oracles were usually at the entrances to the Underworld.

Orbis: an orb, or circle. On a Roman coin the legend ORBIS designates the Roman Empire.

Orichalcum or brass: (or “gold-copper”) a legendary metal mentioned in several early writings. In Ancient times it was considered second to gold in value and mined in many parts of Atlantis. It was alternatively held to be a gold-copper alloy, a copper-tin alloy, or a copper-zinc-brass alloy. In numismatics it is held as the golden-coloured bronze alloy which is used for sestertius and dupondius coins.

Oriens: (or the East) the Romans used the word oriens to designate either the part of the world where the sun appears to rise, or some province of the Empire situate towards the East; or the Sun itself.

Ortygia: a small island near Sicily, where 734-3 BC Greek settlers, founded Sirako –Syracuse, in Sicily.

Ostia: (or portus, Latin for harbour) this is the ancient harbour of the city of Rome, situated at the mouth of the river Tiber, some 30km west of Rome (sea line moved eastward since). According to ancient tradition founded by the 4^th king of Rome, Ancus Marcius (late 7^th century BC).

Ovolo: the sculptural ornament of the echinus of the capital from the Ionian order.

Ouliades: meaning “priest of Apollo, who was not the familiar god of light and reason, but a god of darkness. He was also a magistrate of Miletos in 170-150 BC.

Oxen: (singular ox) according to Homer (Il. vi, 236; ii, 449; Od. i, 431) this is a unit of wealth of the ancient Greeks, hence their most important item of “money” (not coinage) used as barter goods. No wonder that the ox-money (the bronze ingot of 37kg in Cyprus), from the Minoan age, is ascribed the oldest Athenian money (Theseus and ox-types). The ingot of bronze, which was ox-shaped, represented the price of a cow (or ox).

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Paganism: derived from the Latin word paganus, meaning rustic (or country dweller), or the Greek pagos, which means menhir. The term, broadly defined, covers the faith outside the Abrahamic monotheistic group of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. The word “pegan” (infidel) is a Christian adoption of the gentile of Judaism.

Pagoda I: the main coin of southern India in the 6^th-19^th century AD. Some types showed a pagoda.

Pagoda II: or tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Vietnam, and parts of Asia. These were built to have a religious function; a Buddhist temple.

Palla: (or Pallium) a rectangular piece of cloth, exactly, or at least nearly, square, made of raw material, such as wool, flax, or cotton, generally spoken of as a “cloak” or “garment”.

Pallium I: (or Palla) used to spread over beds and couches. A garment worn as a garment by day served to sleep in at night, in exact agreement with the practice which today prevails amongst the Bedouin Arabs.

Pallium II: (or Palla) to spread on the ground as a carpet. When the people at Jerusalem spread their hykes upon the ground they intended thereby to recognise Jesus as a king (Matt. Xxi.8; Mark, xi.8; Luke, xix.36).

Pallium III: (or Palla) used to hang over doors and used as curtains.

Pallium IV: (or Palla) used as a blanket to wrap the newly-born infant.

Pallium V: (or Palla) used often in combination with a tunica as essential parts of an entire dress, yet each of them could be worn separately. When worn without the underclothing (tunica), it indicates poverty or harshness of manners as in the case of Gelon, king of Syracuse (Diod. Sic. Xi.26).

Pallium VI: (or Sagum) this was a woollen palla (called sagum by the northern nations of Europe), fastened, like that of the Greeks, by means of a brooch, or with a large thorn as a substitute.

Paludamentum: a military cloke, worn by the chief, like that which the Greek called chlamys. It was fastened with a fibula or clasp upon the right shoulder, in such a manner as to leave that side uncovered in order to give freedom to the right arm.

Paludatus: an emperor, or general, was thus named, when dressed in the warlike habit which consisted of a paludamentum or short mantle, lorica or breast-plate, with other military armour and ornaments.

Pamphylia: this is a small region squeezed between Lycia and Caria, housing an important ancient harbour and naval base. Although the people were of Greek origine, they preferred the Persian rule and even resisted when Alexander the Great marched into Asia Minor in 334-333 BC.

Pampinea corona: the crown of vine leaves which adorns the head of Bachus.

Panathenaia: this was the most important Athenian festival and the grandest in the entire Greek World (only slaves were excluded). It is believed to be held on Athena’s birthday.

Panathenaic: a set of ancient Greek games held every four years in Athens. They were part of a much larger religious festival, the Panathenaia, which was held every year.

Panathenaic amphora: this was a very large ancient vessel with a short thin neck and a swelling body which tapers sharply at the base, standing on a small foot-disc, containing about 10 gallons of olive oil, from the sacred trees of Athena, offered as a prize in the Panathenaic games.

Pandion I: a pre-historic king of the city-state of Athenes; grandson of Erekhteus.

Pandion II: the father of Erekhtheus and the son of Erikthonois.

Pandora: (or All-Endowed) the first woman; at the order of Zeus, she was given gifts from a variety of gods and goddesses known as the Immortals and was thus Endowed by all, hence the name Pandora.

Paniones I: a religious alliance between 12 ancient Ionian city-states. The members were: Miletus (leading city), Myus, Priene, Ephesos, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae, Phocaea, Samos and Chios.

Paniones II: this word is dirived from the Greek “pan Iônes”, which means all the Ionians.

Panionia: this is the great national panegyris (assembly of the whole community) of the ancient Ionians on mount Mycale, where the god Poseidon Heliconius had his sanctuary (Herod. i. 148; Strab. viii. P. 384).

Panionion: this is how the sanctuary of Poseidon Heliconius is called. In was built on the summit on the promontory of Mycale, a hilltop between Miletus and Ephesos in Asia Minor.

Panis civilis: was the bread which the Roman authorities distributed among the Roman populace.

Panis gradilis: that was a distribution of bread made in the public place, at the liberalities of the Emperors.

Panis persona: a name for the mask of Pan, fabled son of Mercury and Penelope and one of the companions of Bacchus, with the attributes of the pedum.

Pannonia: a country of Eastern Europe, which the ancients divided in Upper, now modern Austria and Hungary, and Lower Pannonia, now Bulgaria, Bosnia and Servia.

Pantheon: a rumple in honour of all the gods, as the Greek word signifies.

Panther: an animal sacred to Bacchus (Liber Pater as in Gallienus), and its image forms on coins and other monuments at once the attribute of, and the attendant upon, that deity.

Paphlagonia: an region on the Black Sea coast north of central Anatolia between, and Bithynia and Pontos.

Parazonium: the ceremonial short sword associated with Roman Imperial power.

Parlant type: (or punning type) this is an early instance of the phenomenon of the “talking type” (parlant), where the design on the coin somehow illustrates the name of the city that produced it.

Parthenope: This was one of the Sirens, who threw herself into the sea out of despair over what she believed to be her lack of allure, and her body washed up on the coast, where (in later times), the city of ancient Parthenope or Neapolis (present-day Naples, in Italy) was founded.

Parthians: rulers of the Persian empire founded by Arsaces I (238-211) which lasted into the 3^rd century AD.

Pater familias: (or head of the family) this is the highest ranking male in the Roman household (provided he was a Roman citizen). He had the legal power of life and death over his children, his wife, and his slaves; of death by exposure over the newly born; to sell (his) children into slavery; to approve or reject marriages.

Patera: a shallow bowl with a vertical handle.

Patrician: [plural patricians] these were the elite of ancient Rome. It was actually a title given to high court officials during the time of the late Roman Empire.

Patronus: (plural patroni) this is a social term that refers to the senior party in one of the ancient Roman social relationships. It could refer to the former master of a fried man, or to the protector, or benefactor of a cliens from a lower class or from outside Rome in a relationship which was named clientala.

Pax Romana: (or Roman peace) is a long period (27 BC – 180 AD) of relative peace and prosperity. There was during this era of moderation minimal territorial expansion, certainly, and Rome became very wealthy.

Pecunia: this is how money is called in Latin. In Greek it is called: argurion [αρηυριον].

Pecunia non olet: “money does not smell” a Roman proverb, referring may be to the Vespasian urine tax.

Pecuniis repetundis: (or extortion in the provinces) Caesar’s law about money-lending and slave-dealing is likely his most notorious banking law.

Pediment: is a low-pitched triangular section above the façade, or a smaller version over the porticos above a doorway or above a window; a triangular sculptured gable end of the roof above the horizontal cornice.

Pedites: heavily armoured Roman infantries classified in three groups. The 1^st one consisted of two groups of men (junior up to 45 years; senior 45-60 years) of each 40 centuriae ; the 2^nd of each 20 centuriae; and the 3^rd class of each 10 centuriae[singular: peditus].

Pedum: a shepherd’s staff, as held by Pan.

Pegasi: the coinage of ancient Corinth is so called, after their constant obverse type of a Pegasus.

Pegasus: (or Pegasos) this is the winged horse that was the son of Poseidon, in his role as horse-god, and the Gorgon Medusa (born of the Earth from the blood of Medusa’s decapitation). Hesiod connects the name Pegasos with the word for “spring” (or well) –the Greek pēgē, for everywhere the winged horse struck hoof to the earth, an inspiring spring burst forth. In other stories Pegasus sprang out of Medusa’s decapitated neck.

Peiristratus: a Greek man of state (607-528 BC) who became tyrant of Athens following the coup in 561 BC. In the Odyssey, he was the great leader that lowered taxes and increased Athenian economy.

Peltastai: light-weapon special units of the Greek army with round (0.6 m) shields. These were generally Thracian mercenaries. Key task: scouting, ambushing and chasing the defeated enemy.

Pentadrachm: a 5^th part of a drachma coin.

Pentaeteric ceremony: ..

Pentaeteric Games: ancient games, consisting of vife different athletic sports.

Pentathlon: an athletic contest with five events, all of which must be entered by each athlete.

Pentèkostus: an army unit of 50 Greek soldiers, headed by a pentèkostuachos.

Pentobol: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 5 obol.

Pentonkion: 5/12^th part of a litra coin [bronze].

Peplos: a long woollen tunic, worn by women, fastened on both shoulders, often with one side open, with a folded edge falling almost down to the waist; sometimes known as the Doric chiton.

Pergamon: (or Pergamun) an ancient city in Mysia, located in the Kaikos Valley. It was of great importance until the time of Alexander the Great. In Hellenistic times it was one of the greatest global cultural centres.

Peripteros: the is how the colonnade of the Greek antae temple, or templum in antis, was called.

Peripoloi: the mercenary of a Greek army unit, in charge of the public order in occupied territory.

Peristryle: this is how the covered colonnade constructed around a building or court is named.

Peristylium: (in Latin Atrium) the central greeting hall, of a Greek villa, where the family and friends were entertained. An open, garden like space in the middle of the house.

Persecutions: (Roman persecutions of Christians) the systematic mistreatment of the early Christians by the Romans. There were (c10) persecutions under: Nero in 64-68; Domitian in 95; Trajan in 112; Marcus Aurelius in 177; Septimius Severus in 202-210; Decius Trajan in 250-251; Valerian in 253-258; Maximinus the Thracian in 253; Aurelian in c 275; and Diocletian in 303-304 with his co-regent Galerius in 308.

Persephone: she was a daughter of Zeus by Demeter. Abducted by Hades (lord of the underworld) she lived partly in and to some extent above the underworld.

Persian standard: an ancient Persian weight standard which was used in coinage in a slightly reduced form.

Petasos: a hat with a wide curving brim; a broad-brimmed floppy felt hat worn by Hermes and by horsemen, hunters and travellers.

Phalanx: a rectangular mass of Macedonian infantry with long spears fighting in a several row formation.

Phanagoreia: the largest Greek colony on the Taman peninsula on the shore of the Cimmerian Bosporus. It was actually the chieftown of the Bosporos, founded in 543 BC by the Teians under Phanagoras.

Phanes I: a primeval Protogenos god of Greek mythology. This was the god of procreation (Eros) and the generation of life. Other primeval gods were: Earth, Air, Sea, Sky, Drinking Water, Time, Underworld, etc.

Phanes II: this was a 7^th century BC Ephesian wealthy person who was the first to put his name on ancient Greek coins, for his name conjured up trust in the community that used these coins.

Pharnakia: a strongly fortified coastal city in Pontos, founded by Mithridates II (250-220 BC) Grandfather of Mithridates the Great.

Phaselis: great commercial centre on the inhospitable Lycian coast. It had an abundant silver coinage which showes a great prosperity during the early Hellenistic era; quite in contrast to the rest of Lycia at that time.

Pheidonian Reform: this is the 7th century BC weight and measurement reform of king Pheidon of Argos, in which he changed the standard unit of the talent from 37,320g to ………

Pheidonian standard (heavy): in this 8^th century BC silver standard created by Pheidon and Argos measuring: 1 talent = 37,320g, or 60 mina of 622g. The didrach = 12.44g, 1 drachm = 6.22g, and 1 obol = 1.03g. The Aeginetan based standard became a model of the earliest coinage in the Aegean region. The gold to silver ratio: 1:12, silver to bronze ratio: 1:120.

Phiale: (or mesomphalic) this is a shallow offering bowl for wine or food, with a large hollow knob in the centre representing the omphalos.

Philadelphia: (modern Alaşehir) this city, at the foot of Mt. Tmolus, is founded by Eumenes II in 189 BC. He named the city for the love of his brother, Attalus II, after his nickname Philadelphos (one who loves his bro). The city is maybe best known from the Book of Revelation (ii) as one of the early Seven Churches of Asia.

Philomelion: (present-day Ak-Shehr in Turkey) this is an ancient city in Anatolia (eastern Phrygia), in the Konia province, situated on the River Gallos. It may have been a Pergamenian foundation on the great Graeco-Romano highway from Ephesos to the east.

Phoenician standard: an ancient monetary standard, under which one drachma equals 7.15g.

Phygela: this is an ancient small coastal city in the southwest of Ionia.

Phrygia: a region in the mid-west of central Anatolia, created by people of Mysian origine in c 1200 BC and a kingdom in th 8^th century BC; taken by the Cimmerians, 690 BC, then by the Lydians, the Persians and next by Alexander the Great; taken by the kings of Pergamon and finally handed over to the Romans in 134 BC.

Phrygian cap: a peaked, flopped cap from Asia Minor as worn by Mithras. Pilaster: a shallow rectangular column projecting only slightly from a wall and, in classical architecture, confronting with one of the orders.

PI: (to be read like the Hebrew ephah) this is a unit of the natural barley foot, equal to 337.5mm (38,443 c.c.) or 72 minai.

Pillars of Herakles: these were two “mountains” facing each other at the Strait of Gibraltar, the western extreme part of the Mediterranean Sea. Both promontories were fabled to have been raised by Herakles in Abyla in Morocco and in Kalpe modern Gibraltar.

Pilos: a conical felt cap worn by soldiers and travellers [plural: pilei].

Pisidia: a very ancient (14^th century BC) region in Anatolia bordering by Lydia, Lycia, Pamphylia and Galatia.

Pityussa: (or Lelegeis) Strabo called the tribes of Graeco-Ionia Lelegeis, after king Lelex (Iliad ii, 10.429).

Plastic vase: a vase in the form of a human, animal, vegetable, or fruit.

Plebeian: [plural: plebeians] member of the plebs was known as a plebeian (Latin: plebeius), and revered to the middle or lower class. Note: it doesn’t say any thing about wealth; they could become rich and powerful.

P.M.: chief pontiff, the Latin pontifex maximus. His main task was to supervise the Roman religion.

Poll-tax: or head (poll) tax was a Roman per-person tax. A fixed amount to be paid by any Roman individual which was fixed randomly by the censor. It was a vital kind of revenue source for the Roman government.

Poleis: (city-states) or –kingdoms, are defined as independent sovereignties that control a limited amount of territory (or chora) surrounding the city. These however could enormously differ in size. The city-state of Sparta e.g. controlled more than 3,000 square miles of surrounding territory, where as Stuella in east Sicily was rather undersized. By the end of the 9^th century BC, these city-state, or by its more common Greek name polis, became hugely popular. In fact with it started a new era known as the Archaic Period.

Polis: (or city-state) a political union or city community in the ancient Greek world; a distant Greek colony.

Polos: a tall cylindrical headdress worn by deities.

Polydeukes: (Pollux to the Romans) one of the twin sons of Zeus by Leda, known as the Dioscuri.

Polykleitos: a famed Greek sculptor from Argos, active c 450-420 BC, noted for his stocky, muscular sculptures based on his Canon of proportions.

Pondo of account: an ancient Roman pondo equals 100 denarius = 4,916,25 grains.

Pontos: (or Pontus) this is a region on the southern coast of the Black Sea, founded by Anatolian settlers.

Portico: (or cella) the central part of the temple, there where the statue of the deity was housed.

Poseidon: (or Earth-shaker) the Greek god of the Sea, also called the earth-shaker, since he was thought to cause earthquakes. He was the son of Cronus and Rhea and the brother of Zeus and Hades. He was the husband of Amphitrite, with whom he had Triton. He had many mistresses and children (e.g. the Cyclops).

Poseidon Enosichton: as god of the sea Poseidon fought with other deities for the land. Earthquakes were thought to be produced by Poseidon shaking the earth, hence the epithet of enosichthon.

Poseidon Heliconius: in this quality Poseidon was worshiped by the Ionians, who took his worship over with them from Peloponnesus to Asia Minor, to the chief sanctuary at Mycale, where the Panionia was held.

Poseidon Nymphagetes: with this epithet Poseidon is the leader of nymphs, of springs and fountains, a god of fresh water.

Poseidon Phytalmius: Poseidon bringer of fresh water and hence a god of vegetation, frequently associated with Demeter.

Poseidon Soler: (or the preserver) Poseidon was also the god who lashed the sea into fury causing storms and shipwrecks. With the epithet of soler the characteristic of sender of the “favoring winds” was meant.

Potin: a metal alloy, made from copper and tin, used for Celtic coinage.

Praefect: (from the Latin praeficere meaning put in charge) this is a Roman official of various types. The romans distinguished between: praetorian, police, military and religious prefects.

Praefectur Alae: the commander of a cavalry battalion.

Praefectus Castrorum: the commander of the campement.

Praefectus Cohortis: the commander of a constituent unit of a legion or analogous unit (cohort).

Praefectus Classis: the commander of the Roman fleet.

Praefectus Equitatus: (or equitum) the commander of the cavalry.

Praefectus Fabrum: the officer in charge of the well-trained engineers and artisans (the fabri).

Praefectus Legionis: the equestion legionary commander.

Praefectus Legionis agens vice legati: the acting equestion legionary commander.

Praefectus Socium: (or sociorum) the Roman officer who is appointed to a command function in an unit recruited among the socii (ala sociorum); are Italic peoples of a privileged social statis within the empire.

Praefectus Laetorum: the commander of the auxiliary units (the infantry) to help keep unfriendly barbarian tribes away. Derived from the Latin word laetare, making cheerful. These were certain barbarian tribes which had special agreements with the Roman empire providing for their livelihood.

Praefectus Samatarum gentilium: this is the commander of the Sarmatian settlers (Italian steppes).

Praefectus Urbi: (or custos urbi) this is a Roman official from the Republican era who guarded Rome during the annual sacrifice of the feriae latina on Mt. Alban in which the consuls took part; guardian of the city.

Praetexta: a long white robe bordered with purple. This was warn by the Roman patricians.

Praetor: a title which the Romans, immediately after the expulsion of the kings, conferred on the consul, and other great magistrates, who in the law, the army, and amongst the people (Praeirent) took the lead, or who were appointed to any office of dignity, whether for things sacred or profane. From 367 BC it became the elite title of the magistrate in charge of administering justice to all citizens. He presided at the public games.

Praetor Peregrinus: a later (… BC) office so called, because he also administered law to foreigners at Rome.

Praetor Provinciales: Roman official in charge of the local government of a Roman province (since 228 BC)

Praetor Urbanus: so called, because he administrated the law to the entire city of Rome. He introduced the ambassadors from Rome’s allies to the Senate. He had the care of the games celebrated in honour of Apollo. He also had the management of the venationes, or wild beast hunting. He did not strike money.

Praetorian guard: (or imperial guard) their commander was a very powerful man in the Roman society.

Praetorian prefect: a regular title of a high office in the Roman state, that changed fundamentally in nature.

Prakrit: these are ancient Ido-European tribes from northern India; also a name given to a group of Hindu languages, based on Sanskrit.

Prasiae: (or port of Athens) this is the 7^th century BC Attic port from which the Theoria set sail to Delos.

Praxiteles: he was a famed Athenian sculptor, active c 375-330 BC, and specialized in bronzes and marbles of younger deities.

Pretextra: (or toga praetextra) a toga (or gown) with a broad purple border, worn by magistrates.

Princeps: a Roman coin legend referring to first citizens of the Roman Republic, or first leader of the Roman Senate. Pompey had held this title.

Prodomos: (or pronaos) this is the front-hall of a Greek temple structure, leading to the cella. It was generally the east entrance. The back-hall (or opisthodomos) was generally the western entrance.

Propylon: (or gateway) an ancient Greek structure serving generally as an entrance to a sacred precinct.

Proskeion: (or okribas) is the front wall of the stage of a Greek theater, an acting area which is projected in front of the scene. In classical times: the ground level portion; in Hellenistic times: the raised platform.

Prothuron: entrance hall of the Greek villa, vestibulum to the Romans.

Propontis: (modern Sea of Marmara) ancient waters in northwest Turkey between Europe and Asian Turkey connected with the Black Sea by the Bosporus and with the Aegean Sea by the Dardanelles.

Propilaeum: (or propylon) an entrance or vestibule to a temple or group of ancient Greek/Roman buildings.

Propylaios: the entrance building for the sacred enclosure of a temple.

Propylon: (or gate) was an entrance or vestibule (propylaeum) to a temple or group of ancient buildings.

Proserpina: she was the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and the wife of Pluto, by whom, according to the fable, she was forcibly borne away from Enna, or Mount Aetna, and conveyed to his infernal kingdom. The Sicilians worshiped her as a goddess, and swearing fidelity to their promises by her name.

Protagoras: a Greek sophist philosopher (480-421 BC).

Protome: the upper part of a human figure, or the forepart of an animal made for attachment.

Prusias II: (or Prusias Cynegus) he is the son of Prusias I a king of Bithynia. Invaded Pergamon in 156 BC.

Pschent: (or double crown) an Egyptian crown representing the royal power of the United Kingdoms of upper an lower Egypt. The crown was often worn by Harpokrates, or the child of Horus (son of Osiris by Isis).

Publicum: this was a Roman public undertaking (private: negotium). He that undertook was a: publicani.

Pudica: a suffix signifying a nude goddess.

Puellae: a Roman Imperial charity fund on behalf of young children to receive free food from the state.

Puellae Faustina: Antoninus Pius honoured his deceased wife by instituting a “Faustina Girls” charity.

Pyramus: this is a river in Cilicia which is the homeland of the rivergod Pyramus who had, told by Ovid (in Metamorphoses 4), a sentimental romance with Thisbe.

Pythia I: (or Delphi oracle) the title of the oracle of the temples at Delphi. She didn’t predict future but gave guarded advice on how impiety might be cleaned and incumbent disaster avoided (Pike in Delphic Oracle p 3).

Pythia II: in older myths this was the serpent Python who was killed by young Apollo for its attempted rape of Leto and Artemis. The bodies of the pair were draped around his rod, which, with the wings of Artemis (or nike) created the caduceus, symbolic of the gods.

Python I: this was the earth spirit conquered by Apollo at Delphi and buried under the Omphalos.

Python II: this is the chthonic serpent Python, named Pythia in older myths, who lived beside the Castalian Spring, and who was killed by Apollo for its attempted rape of Leto and Artemis.

Python III: this was in Greek myths also the (unwanted) chield of Gaia, which was the reason why she punished young Apollo to serve in menial tasks for eight years.

Pyxis: a cylindrical or round lidded box for cosmetics, jewellery, or trinkets.

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Quadriga: war chariot drawn by four horses, four elephants, or indeed by four animals of any other kind [plural: quadrigae].

Quadrigae: this refers to the right of using quadrigae in the processus consularis, or at the assuming of tribunitian power, was bestowed by the senate.

Quadrigae or quadrigi: in the Roman military one denarius valued always 10 Asses. Such a sliver coin had either a quadriga or a biga on its reverse side, and were thereafter called quadrigati or bigati.

Quadrigarii: or charioteers of the circus, holding palm branches.

Quadrigatus-didrachm: an early Roman silver coin, so called from Quadrigae. It equalled …… unciae. This coin was abandoned following the monetary reform of 211 BC. Circulated: 215-213.

Quadrans: a brass Roman coin, so called because it had its name from a mark of three globules.

Quadrussi: a Roman coin of the value of four asses, with the figure of an ox on both sides.

Questores: this was a Roman magistrate in charge of the public treasury (the receiver of general taxes and tributes). The office was considered the lowest in public honour.

Quercea Corona: commonly named “civic crown”. Such a crown of oak leaves was granted to him who saved a fallow soldier in battle whilst showing valour in battle.

Quercus: the oak tree, sacred to Jupiter.

Quincunx: a coin of the Roman type, valuing five niciae.

Quincussis: a coin from the Roman order, valuing five as, or a quinarius.

Quinarius I: an ancient Roman gold coin valuing 12.5 silver denarii. Issued first in 211 BC.

Quinarius II: a silver coin of the Roman order, valuing five as. Issued first in 211 BC. Value marc: V

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Radiata Corona: this was a crown composed of rays of leaves. It first appeared on Roman coins encircling the head of Augustus, denoting his consecration, or as the Greek called it apotheosis. Since Caracalla as a sign for the Romans to distinguish the antonianus from the denarius.Ratis: or the ship stamped on the Roman triens and quadrans.

Radiate: (or antoninianus, or double denarius) introduced in early 215 AD by merciless Caracalla, initially in silver (c 5, at that time 1.5*the weight of a denarius). Because of this important weight reduction it may have been mistrusted and caused an unstable circulation.

Ramis: a branch or more correctly Ramusculus, a little branch.

Ramusculus: a little branch either of laurel or of olive in the hands of many different personifications, figuring on both Roman and on Greek coins. These branches were the attributes or signs of Apollo Salutaris.

Ratis: (or rostrum) the forepart of the ship, stamped on the Roman triens and quadrans.

Ratiti: types of consular brass coins, called asses ratite – or e.g. quadrans ratites – because of the ship on the reverse coin side; a type of money the Romans used long before the introduction of their silver types.

Red-figure vase painting: this is a technique invented in c 530 BC, quite possibly by the potter Andokides. In contrast to black-figure vase painting, where the motives were applied with a slip that turned black during firing while the background was left in the colour of the clay, the vase painters articulated individual forms then by incising the slip or by adding white and purple enhancements (mixtures of pigment and clay). In the red-figure method, the vas stayed in the colour of the clay; the background, filled in with a slip, turned black.

Regia: according to ancient tradition this is the house of the Roman king Numa Pompilius. In the Republican period it was the office of the pontifex maximus (or chief pontiff), situated in the east of the Forum Romanum, between the Sacra and the Atrium Vestae.

Relief: a raised design on a coin or on any other material [contrast: bas relief].

Reliqua: a voluntarily Roman imperial remittance to all subjects (made for the 1^st time by Hadrian) so that every debts owing to the treasury, on account of an immense sum of money, was considered as to be paid.

Remus: brother of Romulus, and reputed son of Mars by Rhea Sylvia. According to fable, he appeared after his death to his foster parents, Faustulus and Acca Laurentia, to claim that his divine honours.

Reptus Sabinarum: a striking rape of Sabine women, graphically referred to on types of the Tituria family.

Res Gestae: (or monumentum Ancyranum) Augustus’s account of all his acts in time of War & Pease, of the territorial extensions of the Roman realm, of the institution of new colonies, of his librations and public works.

Res Private: a roman procurator in charge of fiscal proceeds from landowners, instituted by the Severans.

Restitution: (or restored coins) a name given to type of coins, copied from other pieces struck at an anterior period of time, with the adjunction of legends which prove the reproduction of the particular types.

Rhodian standard: (or Chian standard) in this standard of 4^th century BC ………………………….

Roma: queen of almost the whole earth, prince of cities (Horace, L. iv. od. 3), patroness of Rome.

Romano-Campanian coinage: (or Roman) this how the earliest Roman Republican coinage is named.

Roman dry measure: 1 amphora = 1,898.4 cubic inch equals 3 modius = 632.8 cubic inch, or 32 choenix = 59.32 cubic inches, or 48 sextarius = 39.55 cubic inches, or 96 hemina = 19.77 cubic inches.

Roman foot: The ancient Roman foot is ascertained at 11.664 inches. Hence 1 stadia = 7,290.0 inches, equals 1,250 pace = 58.32 inches. The cubit then is 24 digit = 11.496 inches; the foot, or 16 digit = 11.664 inches; the palm or 4 digit = 2.916 inches, and the digit = 0.729 inches.

Roman gold standard: 1 talent = 377.568 grains, equals 60 mina = 6,292 grains, or 80 libra = 4,719.6 grains, or 960 uncia = 393.3 grains.

Roman liquid volumes: 1 amphora = 1,493.0 cubic inches, equals 2 urna = 746.5 cubic inches, or 8 congius = 186,62 cubic inches, or 48 sextraius = 31.1 cubic inches.

Roman silver standard: 1 talent = 419,520.0 grains, equals 60 mina = 6,992.0 grains, or 80 libra = 5,244.0 grains, or 960 uncia = 437.0 grains.

Rome ablaze: Rome had been several times ablaze. 1^st in Nero’s reign, for 5 days in 64 AD (according to Suetonius & Cassius Dio, Nero was to blame), next under Vitellius in 69 AD, and finally under Titus in 80 AD.

Romulus: (or Romus) brother of Remus, grandson of Numitor; founder of Rome (Romuria of Roma).

Rostra: from rostrum; a name given to a public place in ancient Rome, where a species of estrade or scaffold stood, surmounted by a tribune, where the magistrates or other orators lectured the public.

Rostrum: the spur or beck of an ancient galley, placed on a level with the water. It protruded in front of the prow of a war-vessel, and was armed with a sharp point of metal (copper of iron).

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Saccos: a kerchief wound around the hair and tied with a string to form a bag-like cap.

Sacellum: or chapel, a small place of worship enclosed within a wall.

Sacra I: is the Roman Catholic tribunal of the Rota Romana. This was the 2^nd highest court of the RC Church.

Sacra II: (or via Sacra) the main street of ancient Rome, leading from the hilltop of the Capitolinus through the Forum to the Colosseum.

Sarissa: a heavy (c 5kg), three to four meter long battle lance, made of cornel wood, used in the phalanx.

Sasanians: a people who ruled parts of Persia during the 3^rd –7^th century AD.

Satavanas: rulers of most of southern India, who issued coins as from the 1^st century AD.

Satrap: a viceroy or governor of an ancient Persian province called a satrapy.

S.C.: Senatus Consulto, or under senatorial authority; the letters placed (generally) on both sides of Roman coins, signify that the coin is struck by the public authority of the Senate, according to the constitution of the republic and the laws of the Roman mint.

Scholae: (singular schola) originally a show-piece unit based around students at the university of Constantinople, consisting of sons of Senators and other high imperial functionaries. In later time, under the Diocletian reforms a smaller personal imperial or praetorian guard, consisting of 4,000 men.

Scholae praetoriae: (or paladines) the training centre of the imperial palace guard.

Scutum: rectangular Roman shield. In general a Roman shield was called: clypeus.

Scruple: (plural scruples) a Roman unit of weight used in coinage equal to 6g; a unit of apothecary weight equal to 1/24^th of an ounce, hence 1.3g or 20 grains (1 grain is a unit of mass equal of 64.79891 milligrams).

Sea People: a confederacy of seafaring raiders, who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, causing much political unrest amongst the Greek-Ionian coastal settlements. The sea people tried to take hold of Egypt during the late 19^th and 20^th dynasty (rule of Ramses II and III).

Second Brass: a formerly used to describe mid-sized Roman bronze coins, such as the dupondii and aeri, large folles and AE1s.

Securis: (or axe, or hatchet) the fasces which the lictors carried before the Roman consuls and other high magistrates, consisted of axes, the long handles of which were bound up in a surrounding case of rods.

Seleucid: the territory formed when Seleucus I won virtually all of the provinces of Alexander’s Empire in the east in 281 BC, at the end of the Wars of the Diadochi. It included Syria and Asia Minor, and survived till 64.

Seleukeia ad Calycadum: an ancient Cilician city of great importance, founded by Seleukos I Nikator (358-281 BC) on the river of Kalykadmos. It was as important as Tarsus.

Selge: this is an important ancient Cilician city, situated on the Eurymedon river, near Aspendos (25 miles).

Semis: a coin from the Roman order, valuing half an as, or six unciae.

Semuncia: the half uncia, the twenty-fourth part of the aes, was the smallest denomination of the post 211 BC Roman Republican coinage. This coin of about 2g has been produced only in the initial phase of Roman coinage for it’s size & weight  was very vulnerable to the effects of inflation and declining weight standards. When marked, these coins are marked either with the Greek sigma sign [Σ]. Issued following the currency reform of 211 BC in: 211-206, 179-169, 108-107 and 105 BC.

Septeria: (or Pythian games) this was the annual festival at Delphi, portraying the slaughter of the serpent, the Pythia (Python), the flight, the atonement and the return of the god.

Serapis: a fertility god of ancient Agypt, often associated with Orisis. He was one of the major gods, represented as a bull of as a man with a bull’s head. Serapis is associated with death in the Tartarus region.

Serf: the socio economic status of a Roman peasant under feudalism (legal/military obligations).

Servi: (or slaves) this was the lowest class in the ancient Roman social system.

Sesterce: or sestertius. In Republican times an extremely rare small silver coin valuing 1/4^th of a denarius and thus 1/100^th of an aureus; introduced by Augustus in 23 BC it became a common coin during the Roman Empire, as a large brass coin (25-28g; 32-34mm). This type that underwent a marked deterioration both in weight and in purity (during the endless re-melting process the zinc component –melts at 419°C, was lost which shortfall was compensated by adding lead), seized to be struck in late third century AD.

Sestertius I: introduced as a small silver Roman coin in c 211 BC, valuing one hundredth of an aureus, being one quarter of an denarius, and itself was valued ten asses, market with an X. Circulated: 211-206 BC.

Sestertius II: a Roman brass or orichalcum coin, typically of about 25–28g, ca. 32-34 mm in diameter, and c 4 mm thick. Its value mark: IIS, meaning 2 as and a semis. In script abbreviated: HS (in low cast).

Septunx: a coin of the Roman order, valuing seven unciae.

Seven Churches: (or the 7 churches of the Apocalypse) these were the first 7 Christian comunities in Roman Asia, to whom the apostle John addressed his letters in ancient times: Ephesos (1^st), Smyrna (2^nd), Pergamon (3^rd), Thyatira (4^th), Sardis (5^th), Philadelphia (6^th) and Laodicea 96^th). From the Book of Revelation.

Sextarii: an ancient Roman unit of measurement equal to 0.125 gallon

Sextrans: a coin from the Roman order, valuing 1/6^th of an as or two unciae. Its standard type has the head of Mercyry with the winged petasus on the obverse side and the prow of a galley on the reverse; 2 pellets.

Shabtis: (or ushabit) a small ancient Egyptian mummy-form figurine, made prior to the 21^st dynasty.

Shekel I: [Gr. siglos] silver anchor coin of the Phoenician monetary system [c 7 gram].

Shekel II: an ancient Hebrew biblical coin. In Jodephus (…) it is equal to 4 Athenian drachmae or to 131.18 grains. This makes the heave shekel equal to 262.36 grains. Apart from complying to these wheat grain weights, the coins were also calculated according the barleycorns, which were c 0.8 of the size and weight of a wheat seed. There was also use of gerah beans, which were rated as being equivalent of 16 barleycorns.

Shekel III: originally a Jewish unit of weight (51 r, of a mina, and 30 aj of a talent) and afterwards a coin of the same weight. The biblical reference referred to uncounted ingots: the light shekel equalled to 210-210.55 grains; the heavy was twice as much, which equalled to the Phoenician weight (224.4 grains). The Jewish shekels were first cointed by Simon the Hasmonean, may be in 139-138 BC.

Shendyt-kilt: a kilt with a flap in front, worn by Egyptian royalty and deities.

Shulgia: he was in 2,000 BC Babylon, one of the most active rulers in the 3^rd Dynasty of Ur.

Shulgia weight standard: an ancient Babylonian weight standard. 1 …. = 978.3g, hence the double mina = 489.15g (the correct normal mine at the time was: 486g) and the mina = 244.575g.

Sibyl: (or prophetess) derived from the Greek word sibylla, meaning prophetess. This is the oldest known (only through legend) oraclar seeress in Greek antiquity; was under the divine influence of an earth-goddess.

Sibyl Herophile: this is a priestress, endowed with prophetic powers, claimed by several ancient cities.

Sidelock of youth: the long braided lock of hair worn by prepubescent boys as a sign of youth.

Sigeion: (modern Çanakkale in Turkey) this ancient Greek-Ionian city was located on the coast near present-day Yenisehir, 6km southwest of Troy. The portal city was created in c 620 BC by Athenian settlers.

Siglos: (or ½ stater) is a smaller silver denomination, belonging to a series of the earliest Ionian coinage.

Siglos I: (or shekel) is an ancient Babylonian unit of weight equal to 210-210.55 grains for the light one; twice that for the heavy siglos which is as much as the Phoenician weight

Siglos II: (Babylonian or Persic silver shekel) a silver coin equal to 11.17-11.2g = 1t of 111.72 g of silver, which was equal to 8.4g of gold. Alternatively (in later times) a 20^th part of a silver daric coin [5.35 gram].

Siglos III: (or Phoenician silver shekel) a silver coin equal to 7.44g = es of 111.72g of silver, which equalled to 8.4g of gold.  In this standard the silver to gold ratio must have been: 131:1.

Siliqua: (or Argenteus-siliqua) a Roman silver coin of approximately the same weight and fineness as the reformed Neronian denarius. Introduced during the Diocletian monetary reform of 294 AD.

Simas: (or cornices) the sima or cornice was the adorned (with Greek fictile revetments) part of an ancient temple wall. The simas were, like roof tiles, usually made of terra-cotta and painted.

Simid: (or artaba) Persian measurement of weight (of dry capacity) used as a corn-measure in the ancient Mediterranean basin. The simid equals to 60*486g =29,160g or c.c. (a sexagesimal multiple of the mina).

Sindi: (or the Sindii) this is an ancient Skythian tribe living on the east coast of the Black Sea region.

Sinope: this is one of the many colonies of ancient Miletos (Milet), founded in the 7^th century BC. It became the most important city on the southern coastline of the Black Sea.

Sirako: (or Syracuse) the original name the Greek settlers from Corinth and Tenas (the Argolid), led by Archias in 734-733 BC, had given to the ancient city-state –Syracuse, on the small island of Ortygia in Sicily.

Sirens: the 3 Sea nymphs who lured sailors to their death with a bewitching song. These were handmaidens of the goddess Persephone. When she was abducted by Haides, Demeter gave them the bodies of birds. The three had there sanctuary near Surrentum (modern Sorrento) in Campania, Italy.

Sistrum: a species of tumbrel or rattle, made of brass or some other sonorous metal. Its oval circumference was perforated with several holes opposite each other, through which were inserted horizontally several small metallic rods.

Sitella: a little Roman vessel into which the voting tablets were put.

Situla: a pail-shaped or cylindrical vase, with a separately attached loop handle or two vestigial bail handles.

Skepsis: an ancient city on the Skamander in Troas. The city was abandoned by the end of the 4^th century BC and its inhabitants removed to Alexandreia, but allowed to return (under Lysimachos).

Skyphos: deep drinking cup on a low foot with 2 horizontal handles, often with an owl painted on each side.

Slip: the liquid clay coating applied to vases and terracottas.

Smyrna: (present-day Izmir in Turkey) founded in may be 3000 BC by the native Lelegens, offspring from the eponymous Amazons, well before the first Greek settlers arrived in c 1000 BC, this city is located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Destroyed twice: by the Lydians (IN c 580 BC) and BY an earthquake (178 ad); she is the 2^nd one of the Seven Churches (Revelation 2) of early Christianity.

Solar disk: this is a symbol of the Egyptian sun god Aten. It signifies rebirth to the ancients.

Socii I: (or foederati) these were the citizens of states which had treaty obligations with Rome.

Socii II: in Roman times, these were Italic peoples of a privileged social statis within the empire.

Solidus: a Roman gold coin introduced 1^st by Constantine the Great (307-337 AD) at 72 pieces to the pound.

Solon: a famous Athenian man of state (638-558 BC). He was (594) chief eponymous archon of Attica when Athens was in crisis, and enlarged both the Athenian weight and coinage standard, which was based on the heavy Pheidonian, (1 mina equals to 100, in stead of 73 drachmae), hence reduced all debts by c 25%.

Sophist I: in the beginning he was a professional teacher and scholar, and regarded as such as honourable men. By the 5^th century BC the term became a derogatory designation for men who argued for the sake of arguing and were more concerned with winning arguments than seeking truth or knowledge.

Sophist II: Plato’s dialogue denouncing the Sophists as false teachers and dishonourable men.

Sparta: a huge ancient city-state on the Peloponnesian Peninsula, traditionally ruled jointly by two kings.

Spectacle Fibula: a pin or fibula in the form of a spiral.

Sphendonètai: slingers in the Greek army. They threw fist thick iron or stone projectiles.

Sphinx I: in Greek myths a winged monster with the body of a lioness and the head and breasts of a woman.

Sphinx II: in Egyptian mythsan image of a recumbent lion with the head of a ram, of a falcon, of Ramses II, inveneted by the ancient Egyptians of the Old kingdom; exported to the Greek.

Spica: an ear of corn. On ancient coins this was often associated with an Annona.

Spit: (or iron obol of 2kg) this is an ancient unit of weight which is translated into a small silver coin of 0.72g in the Attic standard. The coin is called an obol.

S.P.Q.R.: letters which were used by the Romans on their coins, standards, and public monuments, to signify Senatus Populusque Romanus; Latin for: the Senate and the Roman People.

Stadium: (plural Stadiums or stadia) derived from the Greek stadion II, which literally means “stand”, a place where people stand. This is the place where the ancients held their Olympic games (since c 776 BC).

Stadion I: (or 6 plethra) an ancient Greek measurement of distance equal to 185.4m (different variants exist around the Mediterranean basin: +/- 30m); 2 stadia = 1 diaulos; 12 stadia (or 6 diauloi) = 1 dolichos.

Stadion II: (pluras stadia) this is the place where the ancients held their Olympic games (since c 776 BC), so called after the measurement of a standardizing footrace track of about 180-200 meter, rouphly 210 yd.

Stater: [Babylonian weight unit] either electrum or golden anchor coin of the Archaic, Aeginetic, and Euboic monetary system. Electrum was used 6^th – early 5^th century BC [some cities in Asia Minor and Cyprus used it till. Term used for any standard silver or gold coin of ancient Greece; often double denominations.

Stele: a slab of stone or wood with a relief or inscription, most often a gravestone. There were several types of them: funerary, votive which were usually placed in temples, commemorative and boundary [plural stelae].

Stephanephoros: this was the higher magistrate in som ancient Greek cities for he was granted the honor of being allowed to wear a wreath or garland on public occasions.

Stephanos I: (or crown) from the Greek stepho, meaning encircle (or twine). This is an adornment worn around the head as a crown of victory in Greek athletic games given to the winner. A wreath made of foliage or designed to resemble it, and worn by one of high status or held in high regard (in the New Testament).

Stephanos II: (or headdress) an encircling band, particularly a wreath often with a honorific signification.

Stephanus Quadrigarius: a Roman contorniate coin, given by Pedrusi in the Mus. Farnes, bearing on the obv. The head of Trajan, and on the revers the legend STEFANUS with the type of a conqueror at the games.

Stola: a long gown or robe worn by every honourable matron among the Romans. This is a female dress worn over the tunic. It came as low as the ankles or feet, and was fastened round the body by a girdle, leaving above the breast broad folds

Stone duck weights: a Babylonian set of ancient weights, indicating “one right talent” equal to 29.68kg, which indicates a “right” mina of 496 2/3^rd gram. Perian silver coins were minted, though, to 504g a mina. This in contrast to the Lydian ones which were minted at 486g a mina.

Stratègos: (or polemachos) a commander in the Greek army [plural: stratègoi].

Stratonikeia: one of the most important cities in the interior of Caria, in Anatolia, located on the sout of the river Eskihisar. Founded by the Seleucid king Antiochos I Soter in first half of the 3^rd century BC (Strabo).

Strigil: a curved metal scraper used by athletes to remove oil from their skin.

Striking coins: method of coin making by placing a blanc piece of (precious) metal between two dies and applying pressure with a hammer.

Subauratus coin: (or numi subaurati) silver plated Roman brass or copper coin.

Summerian-Babyloning standard (heavy): 1 talent = 931,334.4 grains, equal 60 mina = 15,522.24 grains, or 3,600 shekel = 258.70 grains.

Summerian-Babyloning standard (light): 1 talent = 465,667.2 grains, equal 60 mina = 7,761.2 grains, or 3,600 shekel = 129.35 grains.

Sydra: (present-day Antikya ad Kragum) this is an ancient city in Cilicia.

Symposium: a banquet or drinking party accompanied by music, conversation, and sexual activities.

Syncretistic: a term used to describe a combination (blending) of deities.

Syrian dry volumes: ………..

Syrian liquid volumes: 1 metretes = 3,732.51 cubic inches, or 2 metris = 1,866.25 cubic inches, or 12 choes = 311,04 cubic inches, or 48 choenices = 77.76 cubic inches.

Syrinx: a reed instrument composed of several pipes bound together.

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Taenia: a band or fillet.

Tablinum: this is the living room in a Roman villa.

Tag figure: a stylised human figurine found in pre-dynastic Egyptian cemeteries.

Talent I: an ancient unit of mass which corresponded to mass of water in the volume of an one cubic foot which roughly is 27kg (60lbs). When used as a measure of money it differs. It is reported that a talent of gold equalled the weight of a mature male, which was c 50kg (110lb). In Kings-II 5:22 a talent of silver equals to 3,000 shekels or 34.5kg (125lbs); a talent of gold is, in Ex 25:39, however twice as much so 69kg or 250lbs.

Talent II: after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC a mercenary got 1 drachma per day, which was a good salary. During the Peloponnesian War the crew of a trireme (150 rowers under deck for a light Roman trireme; 170-200 for the Greek ones) was paid one talent per month, so 1 talent made c 6,000 drachma.

Tanagra: a site in Boeotia, Greece, where large numbers of fine figures, c 330-200 BC, were excavated.

Tanagra style: this style type loosely refers to draped standing female figurines made between 330-200 BC.

Tarsus: this important Cilician city is situated on the river Tarsus and inhabited since Neolitic times. It was part of the Assyrian empire (700 BC); destroyed but rebuilt by king Sennacherip. Capital of Cilicia in 400 BC.

Teians: these are Ionian-Greek people, the inhabitants of ancient Teos in Ionia.

Telos: (or xenikon) an ancient Greek toll duty.

Templa: (or Aedes deorum) a cult temple represented on a Roman coin; small representation of a templum.

Temple banking: long before cash had even been invented, precious metal in the Mediterranean basin was housed in temples. Much of it had taken the shape of cult statues and votive offerings, but there were also private or secular deposits, and some large temples, like the temple of Artemis in Ephesos (Asia Minor), accepted deposits from foreign individuals and governments, as well as from local citizens, and lent out funds.

Templum: (or temple) an ancient Roman place of worship.

Teos: this was an ancient maritime city in Ionia, colonized by the Orchomenian Minyans and the Boeotians. Its two great harbours were ruined when Cyrus the Great invaded Ionia (540 BC).

Terminus: a divinity to whom the Romans paid worship, as presiding over the boundaries of fields.

Terpsichore: one of the Muses. She was the muse of music.

Tetarmorion: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 1/4 obol.

Tetarte: (or ¼ stater) is an ancient Greek electron coin which weighs c 5.78g in the Samian-Euboic standard.

Tetradrachm: a four-drachm coin of ancient Greece.

Tetras: 1/3^rd of a litra coin [bronze].

Tetrobol: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 4 obol.

Thalia: she was one of the three graces with Euphrosyne and Aglaia, who represented splendor, beauty and adornment [Theogony, line 907-911, and 946; Iliad, book 2, lines 671-674].

Theban: an ancient Egyptian measurement of dry volume which relates to the Greek one as: 1 theban = 5 metretes or 60 chous or 720 cotyle or 2,880 oxybaphon or 4,320 cyathus; 1 theban = 3.75 medimnus or 22.5 hecteus or 180 choenic = 6.75 cubic feet [singular foot].

Thebes I: (or the city of seven gates) a very old city-state (even capital) of Boeotia, an ancient Greek district northwest of Athens, founded by Kadmus on his search for his sister Europa (abducted by Zeus).

Thensa: a sacred car in which the images of the gods and goddesses were carried to the games of the circus.

Theoria: this was the annual sacred Athenian embassy which set sail from Prasiae to Delos. According to belief they went by the ship in which the legendary king Theseus had returned triumphant from Knossos.

Thessalon: (or Salonika) this is ancient famed city to which st. Paul addressed, in c 50 AD, his letters to the Thessalonians. They were written in ancient Corinth and addressed to recent Christian convents in Macedon.

Thessaly: this was an independent and powerful state and largest region of ancient Greece, corresponding roughly to present-day Larissa and Trikkala prefectures. Conquered by Philip II of Macedon in 344 BC.

Thetes: the lowest class in Greek society. These were the poorest people, and generally recruited as archers.

Thiasos: a processional scene.

Thymiaterion: an incense burner with a tall base, often with a complex profile.

Thyrrhenian amphora: (or Etruscan) an ovoid shaped neck-amphora (wine jar) found in great number on Etruscan sites in Italy. This was a specialty of Athenian pottery made for export. Also the epigraphic of Solon’s late Athenian 6^th century BC punch stamped silver coinage, known as heraldic coinage.

Thyrsos: (or Thyrsus) a Dionysiac staff ending in a pine cone and often covered with ivy and vine leaves.

Tiara: a cap or turban worn by the ancient kings of Persia and of Armenia.

Thisbe: she was, according to Ovid (in Metamorphoses 4), the fairest maiden in all Babylonia who fell in love with the handsomest youth, Pyramus.

Titans I: (plural of Titan) or Titanides, are the sons and daughters of Uranes and Gea. There were twelve.

Titans II: a name given to the divine or semi-divine beings who were descended from the Titans. Hecate, Latona, Pyrrha, and especially Helios (and his son Circe) and Selene, as the children of Hyperion and Theia.

Titans III: a name given to certain tribes of men from whom all mankind is descended. Thus the ancient city of Cnosos in Crete is said to have originally been inhabited by Titans, who were hostile to Zeus, but chased by Pan with the fearful sounds of his shell-trumpet (Homer Hymn. in Apoll. 336; or in Diod iii. 57 v 66).

Tituli: the Roman statuettes of the ancestors of the family. They had a ceremonial place around the ara.

Token coinages: when the face value of a coin is greater than the actual value of the material within it, the coin acts as a token. Hence the value is guaranteed by the ruler or city-state which issued it.

Toga (tus) I: (or gown) originally worn by both sexes, it became the principal outer garment worn by Romans derived from the Latin word “tegere” because it covered the whole body.

Toga II: a odd distinction of the Romans, who were thence called togate or gens togate (Virg. Aeneas I.282). A Roman male draped and somewhat veiled in a loose-fitting woollen robe once reserved for the free-born.

Toga III: a garment worn by men and women, but when the stola came to be worn by matrons, the toga was only worn by meretrices and by women who had been divorced on account of adultery.

Toga Candida: a gown worn by candidates for special offices of a brighter white (resulted from rubbing it with chalk) as the toga verilis.

Toga Palmata: this was a kind of toga picta.

Toga Picta: (or toga capitolina) white toga ornamented with Phrygian embroidery worn by generals in triumph. In Imperial times it was worn by the consuls, and by the praetors when they celebrated the games.

Toga Praetexta: this was a kind of toga candida but now with a broad purple border. It was worn with the bulla aurea (a conical, circular plate or boss of metal on a long stick) by magistrates and by persons engaged in sacred rites or paying vows. The toga and the bulla were first given to boys in the case of the son of Taequinius Piscus, who at the age of 14 slew the enemy in the Sabine War.

Toga Pulla: this was the toga, made of the natural colour of black wool, worn in private mourning, and sometimes by people of the lower social order.

Toga Sordida: a neglected white toge candida. The wearer of such garments was called a sordidati.

Toga Trabea: (or just, trabea) was a toga ornamented with purple horizontal stripes. The equites wore them at the transvectio and during other public solemnities. There were three kinds: one wholly of purple, which was sacred to the gods; one purple and white; and one purple and saffron, which belonged to augurs.

Toga Verilis: (in Ovid ‘s Fasti, iii.771, called libera; alternatively toga Pura, also vestimentun purum, or the tirocinium fori) a white toga worn by young Roman citizens for the first time when they had become an adult. At that they were allowed to have an opinion and to defend it in public.

Token currency: (or fiat currency) is coinage, usually bronze or copper, that was of little intrinsic value, but accepted as a common medium of exchange. First invented in Sicily about mid 5^th century BC.

Tondo: a round composition as in the centre of a kylix or as a large marble plaque, sometimes centred with a head or bust in the round.

Toxotai: archers in the Greek army. In a full quiver, which was made of leather, their had ten arrows.

Trapezitai: this is how the ancient Greeks called their bankers. The word is derived from the Greek trapeze which means bench (counter) or bank, banca in Italian.

Trias: ¼ of a litra coin [bronze].

Tribuni aerarii: officials in charge of the tributum (or war-tax) in the tribe and the poll-tax on the aerarii.

Tribuni militum: tribal army in Roman regal times of 3,000 men (1,000 Titienses, Ramnenses and Luceres).

Tributum: a direct tax on Roman goods, both moving and non-moving goods, fixed by the censor.

Triclinium: a Roman dining room. The name is derived from the three lay-beds around the low table.

Tridens: (or trident) a fork with three tines, with the ancients have represented as the sceptre and peculiar symbol of Neptune.

Triens: a coin of one third of the as, of four unciae.

Trierarchos: in Latin trierarcha. He was the commander of a Greek trireme.

Trihemistater: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 3/2 stater.

Trihemiobol: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 3/2 obol.

Trihemitertartemorion: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 3/8 obol.

Tripartite wig: an ancient Egyptian hairpiece divided into two large sections of either side of the head, worn by upper classes of both sexes, and falling down in a single mass at the back.

Tripondius: a brass coin of the Roman order, valuing three as. It was marked III.

Tripus: (or tripod) a table, a seat, or any other instrument, standing on three legs. The tripod was occasionally used in sacrifices instead of the ara (or altar).

Trireme: (or triremes) a light and fast Greek war vessel from the 6^th century BC used e.g. in the Battle of Marathon. It had at both sides three rows of oarsmen not on top of each other, but oblique behind each other.

Trite: (or 1/3^rd stater) is a name issued for one of the divisions of the very early Greek electrum staters. In the Samian-Euboic standard this was about 5.78g.

Triumvir: (or tresvir; plural: tresviri) a member of the committee of three officials. The Roman knew several kind of tresviri: 1) on a regal mission, the triumviri coloniae deducendae; 2) on a mission of reinstitution, the triumviri rei pulicare constrituende [III VIR R P C]; 3) on fiscal mission, triumviri monetales; 4) on a task of economic crisis, triumviri mensarii; and 5) on a legal mission, triumviri locorum publicorum persequendorum.

Tritartemorion: an ancient Greek denomination, valuing 3/4 obol.

Troy weight standard: an ancient weight standard from Asia Minor. 1 mina equals to 488-489g. Because of its fame in Europe the authoritative sample, indicated the weight of a libra of 489.5g.

Tutulus: an Etruscan female hairstyle in which the locks of hair are twisted upward into a tall bun and bound with ribbons.

Turna: a squadron of Roman cavalry.

Tyche I: a daughter of Hermes and Aphrodite; alternatively, considered as one of the Oceanids, daughters of Oceanus and Tethys or Zeus Pindar. She is connected with Nemesis and Agathos Daimon (good spirit).

Tyche II: (or fortune to the Romans) from the Greek Túxη, meaning luck. This is the presiding tutelary deity that governed the fortune and prosperity of a city, its destiny. For this reason she wears a mural crown.

Tympanum I: or tambourine.

Tympanum II: (or triangular area within the pediment) the ornamental recessed space or panel enclosed by the molding of a pediment; the space between an arch and the lintel of a door or window.

Type: this is how numismatists call the design found on the reverse side of a coin.

Tyrany: the Greek Tyrannos –Latin Tyrannus, implies a single ruler holding vast and absolute power through a state of fear. In contrast to modern times, in ancient times the word didn’t carry an ethical censure for it simply referred to anyone who illegally seized executive power in a polis to engage in autocratic government.

Tyre: (modern Sur) city-state, and an ancient seaport of Phoenicia (near the stream of Aegyptus) besieged by Alexander the Great, whilst marching on Syria, and after much difficulty in 332 BC.

Tyrrhenian amphora: a neck shaped amphora with an egg-shaped body. These were made in 565-559 BC.

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Ulpianus: this is Domitius Ulpiánus. He was a Roman lawyer and a prefectus praetorio under Alexander Severus; killed by the soldiers in 228 AD.. Many of his laws figure in the Digesta.

Umbo: an oval or even round metal knot in the middle of a shield.

udjat-eye: (or wedjad-eye) an ancient Egyptian amulet symbolizing the power of the god of light, representing strength, vigour, and great healing powers. It was used as a protection against the evil eye.

Underworld: in Greek mythology this is the domain of Hades, who was also known as Pluto the unseen one, dis Pater to the Romans. As a term it is a generic word approximately equivalent to the afterlife or life of the death, referring now to the place to which newly dead souls go to.

Uncia I: a small bras coin of Roman coinage, it valued one twelfth of an as (211-206 BC). It represented the basic unit by which most of the larger fractional denominations of the as were denoted. Weight about 3.5-4g declining to 2.75g in 206 BC. In the time of Augustus this type was used for the price of a bath or an hour with a prostitute [plural: unciae].

Uncia II: a measure or weight of 2 d.

Unicode: (or universal character encoding) it provides a unique number for every character, no matter what the platform, no matter what the program, no matter what the language is. To use it in Ms Windows: enable NUM-LOCK first, then press Alt-key and type 0 (zero) on your numeric board together with your Unicode.

Urbania: or Muses.

Urbis: (or urbs) means city in the sense as a fortification.  Urbs Roma refers to the city or even better the stronghold of Rome.

Unrna: a measurement or weight of 2 c.

Upper Egypt: the southern part of ancient Egypt; northern part is called Lower Egypt.

Uranos: the eldest god of the myth of creation. He was the father of Kronos.

Urgulanilla: that was Plautia Urgulanilla, wife of Claudius. She had 2 children: Drusus and Claudia.

User sceptre: an Egyptian staff surmounted by a jackal’s head or similar canine, representing dominion and support of heaven, given to the deceased as a token of authority, divine prosperity, well-being and happiness.

Ushabit: (or shabit) a small mummy-form figurine which carried out work in the afterlife of the deceased, such as providing food by sowing the fields and maintaining the canals by moving the sand from east to west and back. An Egyptian burial required 365 of them and 36 overseers.

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V: as a mark of value on Roman Victoriati, indicating the value of half a vitoriatus.

Vallum: part of a Roman encampment, composed of earth with sharp stakes inserted in it, and derived from the Latin word vallus, in English stake.

Valour: (or Virtus) is heroic courage when facing danger in battle. For the Romans Virtus is expressed as a draped female, rather Amazon like, wearing a helmet and holding a long spear and a parnazonium.

Vandals: an east Germanic tribe who entered the late Roman Empire during the 5^th century AD, and helped to bring about the Roman Empire’s decline. They had a kingdom in North Africa as their base of raiding the Mediterranean waters, much like the Vikings. In the Germania, Tacitus described them as the Vandilii.

Ver sacrum: in ancient Roman times, when the distress was at its peak, every thing would be offered to the gods, that would be “reborn” during the next Spring. The celebrations were knows as: the ver sacrum.

Verútum: a spear from the Roman soldiers of the 4^th class, following the classification of Servius. These spears had a long metal point [the Latin veru, means broach].

Vestibulum: the fore-hall of the Roman villa.

Veteranus: after 20 years of duty and still fit for the job, the Roman legionary soldier was promoted to the rank of vexillarius to be freed from duty soon after. He then got a piece of land in Italy and a  donativum.

Vexillarius: carrier of a Roman imperial or legionary vexillium. An worthy military function associated with light and special duties.

Vexillatio: (plural vexillationes) this was a detachment of a Roman legion, formed as a temporary task force.

Vexillium: a banner or standard from the Roman emperor or a detachment of the legion. A square piece of, usually red, cloth with special signs on it attached to a stick. On top of it was a personal field sign.

Via: (or way) Roman main ways were called via. E.g. via Aemillia; via Appia; via Aurelia; via Cassia; etc.

Victoriat: a silver coin type from the early Roman republican period. They were issued in three values. These coins have never been a varied of the denarius.

Victoriatus: is one of the earliest Roman silver coin types, valuing half a quadrigatus or three scruples.

Victoriarus: (or numi victoriati) a series of early Roman silver coins consisting of: 1. a double victoriat, 2. a victoriat, and 3. a half victoriat. Each of the have for type on the obverse the head of Jupiter, and on the reverse Victory (Nike to the Greek) crowning a trophy. Both the double and the victoriat never bore a mark of its value, but later the half victoriat alone was marked S on the reverse. It was originally struck at 1/96^th of a Roman pound, and later the reduction to other silver pieces at 1/112^th part of a pound.

Victoriatus aureus: is the proper denomination of the two ordinary gold coins issued by Julius Caesar and Augustus for these types were borrowed from the silver, and should therefore be called denarius aureus and victoriatus aureus. The former is generally called aureus. (Mommsen, Mon.Rom., vol. iii, p 19).

Vicus: the subdivision of one of the Roman city quarters, the Tribus Urbanus.

Vindex’s rebellion: this was a rebellion late 67/early 68 AD of Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis (the northern half of modern France) in Gaul, against Nero’s tax policies.

Vitruvius: to him we owe the classification of the different forms of the ancient Greek and Roman temples.

Virtus: the helmeted head of Valour.

Volute: a spiral scroll on the capital of the Ionian order, smaller versions appear on Composite and Corinthian capitals.

Vota: (or vows) were both private or public. It was custom at Rome to make public vows on the calends of January, when the consuls were elected, for the safety of the Empire, and two days before the Nones of the same month for the preservation of the emperors. Public vows were made on the marriage of an emperor and empress, and on any other occasion

Votary: a worshipper.

Votive: an offering at a sanctuary.

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Was sceptre: a long forked staff surmounted by the head of an animal (the Set animal), which the ancient Egyptians considered to have life-giving powers.

Wadj: (or papyrus sceptre) the emblem of Lower Egypt and the cobra-headed goddess Wadjyt or the fiery eye of Re. she was the protectress of the pharaoh. It represents eternal potency and youth; rejuvenation; preservation of strength; and protection from injuries.

Wappenmünze: (or heraldic coin) this is the key to 7^th – 6^th century BC Athenian numismatics for their incuse squares prove them to emanate from one mint. Although many other explanations exist, the term “Heraldic coins” comes from the fact that these coins depict a wide range of emblems of ancient powerful Athenian families. The Tyrrhenian amphora is such a coin struck under Solon’s archonship in 594 BC.

Wedjat-eye: (or udjat-eye) an amulet symbolizing the power of Aten or the god of light, representing force, vigour and great healing powers. It was used as a protection against the evil eye, emblem of the eye of Horus, or the great falcon-headed sky god and chief god of Lower Egypt, which he lost in his fight with Set.

White crown: (or hedjet) a mitre-like hair dress, warn by the lord of the underworld, Osiris, which represents the royal power of Upper Egypt.

Winged sun disk: that is the symbol of the sun-god Ammun-Re, protected by the wings of the falcon-headed Horus. The sign is placed above ancient Egyptian temple doors and at the top of a stele as a symbol.

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X: as a mark of value on Roman denarii, indicating the value of ten asses.

Xanthos: that was the immortal horse of Achilles. It could speak and foresaw the heroes death.

Xenikon: (or telos) a kind of ancient Greek tax. Telos is Greek for toll duty.

Xenoi: a foreign-born, free non-citizen transient who played an important role in the ancient Greek economy. They carried out the long-distance trade, and like the metics were subject to special poll-tax, but few rights.

Xenodocheion: an ancient Greek hospital. As early as 4^th century AD the Greek had public hospitals which were built by the early Christians.

Xouthus: mythuc father of the hero Ion (Eponym of the Ionians), He was the son of Hellen (the eponym of the Greeks as a whole). His mythic brothers were: Dorus and Aeolis (eponyms of the Achaeans and Dorians).

Y: the letter γ was borrowed from the Greek alphabet in the time of Cicero in order to express more precisely the sound of upsilon.

Year of Rome: (or AUC) this revers to what is called: the “birth” of Rome. In this notation, for exemple, the year 874 translates into the year 121 AD. According to this notation, Rome would be ‘born’ in 874 – 121 = 753 BC, which in fact is the supposed year when Romulus founded Rome. Its ‘birthday’ was April 21.

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Z: is the twenty-third and final letter of the Latin alphabet, being reintroduced from the Greek alphabet in the time of Cicero for the translation of Greek words.

Zacynthus: (or Zante) is an island in the Sicilian sea. It has a very interesting history for numismatics.

Zarathoestra: establisher of the Persian state religion in c 630 BC. A archaic religion which was based upon Ahoeramazda or spirit of the good, an on Ahriman or spirit of the evil.

Zeleia: this is an ancient city in Mysia on the river Aisepos. During the period of the invasion of Alexander the Great in Achaemenid empire, this was the headquarters of the Persian army.

Zeugitana: a region forming, after the fall of Carthage in 146 BC,  the northern part of the Roman province of Africa. It was united with Byzancium in one province, called Africa velus.

Zeus: in Greek myths, the youngest son of Cronus and Rhea. The supreme ruler of Mt. Olympus and of the Pantheon of gods who resided there. He upheld law, justice and morals. So is also spiritual leader of gods and men. He was a celestrial god, first worshiped as a weather god by Greek tribes in 2100 BC. He had many offsprings, tempels an honourable epithets.

Zeus Branchus: (or Zeus Didymaeus) this is Zeus, the aboriginal god, worshipped beside Apollo at Didyma. The descendants of Apollo’s son Brnchus, identiefied with Zeus, also gave oracles

Zeus Didymaeus: this epithet refers to the association with Zeus and Apollo in the temple of the Didymaion near Didyma in Asia Minor. This view is based upon a fragment of the Nicader’s Aetolica where both are called lords of the didyma, and Zeus named by the epithet Didymaeus.

Zeus Didimus: refers to the deity in pairs, double or twin. For exemple: Zeus and Apollo, or Zeus or Jupiter.

Zeus Panhellenios: (or Zeus of all the Greek) …..

Zeus Pelios: Zeus the protector, or patron of the city-state of Athens. He had a small temple on the Akropolis behind the Parthenon.

Zeus Soter: an honourable epithet of Zeus by his quality of “savior”.

Zeus Trophonios: that is the oracle of Trophonios in Boeotia; the mythic figure of Orchomenos who had his sanctuary in Oropos, where he was questioned at the charge of nine obols.

Zeuxis: a painter from Athens, time of Socrates.

Zoroaster: from the Greek ástra, meaning stars, and zõrós, mening undiluted. He is an Iranian prophet from the 6^th century BC; a religious poet. The hymns attributed to him are the scriptural basis of Zoroastrianism.

Zoroastrianism: this is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra).

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